From a2da0cc50ecd2a0b482068b7cd2cdc2950b948d9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: 0000OOOO0000 <63518686+0000OOOO0000@users.noreply.github.com> Date: Thu, 12 Jan 2023 19:15:07 +0200 Subject: [PATCH] =?UTF-8?q?TXT.=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=E1=94=93=E1=94=95=E2=9C=A4=E1=91=8E=D0=98N?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=EA=97=B3=E2=93=84=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=A0=80=E2=9C=BB=E2=93=848=E1=97=9D=D0=98N=E1=97=A9=EC=98=B7?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=8A=9A=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=E2=97=8C=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=8A=9A=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=E2=97=8C=E2=A0=80?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=97=AF=E2=A0=80?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=A0=80=E2=97=AF=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=A0=80=E2=97=8C=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=8A=9A?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=E2=97=8C=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=8A=9A=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80?= =?UTF-8?q?=EC=98=B7=E1=97=A9=D0=98N=E1=97=9D8=E2=93=84=E2=9C=BB=E2=A0=80?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80=E2=93=84=EA=97=B3=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99=E2=A0=80?= =?UTF-8?q?=D0=98N=E1=91=8E=E2=9C=A4=E1=94=93=E1=94=95=E2=A0=80=E2=B5=99?= =?UTF-8?q?=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80=E2=A0=80.TXT?= MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit --- .../⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀✤ꕤ✤⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀✤ꕤ✤⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀/TXT.⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀ᔓᔕ✤ᑎИN⠀ⵙ⠀ꗳⓄ⠀ⵙ⠀✻Ⓞ8ᗝИNᗩ옷⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀옷ᗩИNᗝ8Ⓞ✻⠀ⵙ⠀Ⓞꗳ⠀ⵙ⠀ИNᑎ✤ᔓᔕ⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀.TXT | 15108 ++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 15108 insertions(+) create mode 100644 ◯ᗩIᗝI⚭◯⚪◯⚭IᗝIᗩ◯ⵙ◯ᗩIᗝI⚭◯⚪◯⚭IᗝIᗩ◯/◯✤ᴥᗩ◯ⵙ◯ᗩᴥ✤◯/◯❁✤❁ᑐᑕᗩНᗱᗴᙏ❁ᑐᑕIറ◯ⵙ◯റIᑐᑕ❁ᙏᗱᗴНᗩᑐᑕ❁✤❁◯/◯IꕢIН✻◯ⵙ◯✻НIꕢI◯/◯ꕢᗱᗴߦᗱᗴ⧲ЗԐ⊙I❁IᑏI人✤НI◯І❁І8ᗱᗴ✤І❁І⧻◯ⵙ◯⧻І❁І✤ᗱᗴ8І❁І◯IН✤人IᑏI❁I⊙ЗԐ⧲ᗱᗴߦᗱᗴꕢ◯/⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀✤ꕤ✤⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀✤ꕤ✤⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀/TXT.⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀ᔓᔕ✤ᑎИN⠀ⵙ⠀ꗳⓄ⠀ⵙ⠀✻Ⓞ8ᗝИNᗩ옷⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀옷ᗩИNᗝ8Ⓞ✻⠀ⵙ⠀Ⓞꗳ⠀ⵙ⠀ИNᑎ✤ᔓᔕ⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀.TXT diff --git a/◯ᗩIᗝI⚭◯⚪◯⚭IᗝIᗩ◯ⵙ◯ᗩIᗝI⚭◯⚪◯⚭IᗝIᗩ◯/◯✤ᴥᗩ◯ⵙ◯ᗩᴥ✤◯/◯❁✤❁ᑐᑕᗩНᗱᗴᙏ❁ᑐᑕIറ◯ⵙ◯റIᑐᑕ❁ᙏᗱᗴНᗩᑐᑕ❁✤❁◯/◯IꕢIН✻◯ⵙ◯✻НIꕢI◯/◯ꕢᗱᗴߦᗱᗴ⧲ЗԐ⊙I❁IᑏI人✤НI◯І❁І8ᗱᗴ✤І❁І⧻◯ⵙ◯⧻І❁І✤ᗱᗴ8І❁І◯IН✤人IᑏI❁I⊙ЗԐ⧲ᗱᗴߦᗱᗴꕢ◯/⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀✤ꕤ✤⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀✤ꕤ✤⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀/TXT.⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀ᔓᔕ✤ᑎИN⠀ⵙ⠀ꗳⓄ⠀ⵙ⠀✻Ⓞ8ᗝИNᗩ옷⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀옷ᗩИNᗝ8Ⓞ✻⠀ⵙ⠀Ⓞꗳ⠀ⵙ⠀ИNᑎ✤ᔓᔕ⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀.TXT b/◯ᗩIᗝI⚭◯⚪◯⚭IᗝIᗩ◯ⵙ◯ᗩIᗝI⚭◯⚪◯⚭IᗝIᗩ◯/◯✤ᴥᗩ◯ⵙ◯ᗩᴥ✤◯/◯❁✤❁ᑐᑕᗩНᗱᗴᙏ❁ᑐᑕIറ◯ⵙ◯റIᑐᑕ❁ᙏᗱᗴНᗩᑐᑕ❁✤❁◯/◯IꕢIН✻◯ⵙ◯✻НIꕢI◯/◯ꕢᗱᗴߦᗱᗴ⧲ЗԐ⊙I❁IᑏI人✤НI◯І❁І8ᗱᗴ✤І❁І⧻◯ⵙ◯⧻І❁І✤ᗱᗴ8І❁І◯IН✤人IᑏI❁I⊙ЗԐ⧲ᗱᗴߦᗱᗴꕢ◯/⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀✤ꕤ✤⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀✤ꕤ✤⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀/TXT.⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀ᔓᔕ✤ᑎИN⠀ⵙ⠀ꗳⓄ⠀ⵙ⠀✻Ⓞ8ᗝИNᗩ옷⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀옷ᗩИNᗝ8Ⓞ✻⠀ⵙ⠀Ⓞꗳ⠀ⵙ⠀ИNᑎ✤ᔓᔕ⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀.TXT new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d1e8cdcf --- /dev/null +++ b/◯ᗩIᗝI⚭◯⚪◯⚭IᗝIᗩ◯ⵙ◯ᗩIᗝI⚭◯⚪◯⚭IᗝIᗩ◯/◯✤ᴥᗩ◯ⵙ◯ᗩᴥ✤◯/◯❁✤❁ᑐᑕᗩНᗱᗴᙏ❁ᑐᑕIറ◯ⵙ◯റIᑐᑕ❁ᙏᗱᗴНᗩᑐᑕ❁✤❁◯/◯IꕢIН✻◯ⵙ◯✻НIꕢI◯/◯ꕢᗱᗴߦᗱᗴ⧲ЗԐ⊙I❁IᑏI人✤НI◯І❁І8ᗱᗴ✤І❁І⧻◯ⵙ◯⧻І❁І✤ᗱᗴ8І❁І◯IН✤人IᑏI❁I⊙ЗԐ⧲ᗱᗴߦᗱᗴꕢ◯/⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀✤ꕤ✤⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀✤ꕤ✤⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀/TXT.⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀ᔓᔕ✤ᑎИN⠀ⵙ⠀ꗳⓄ⠀ⵙ⠀✻Ⓞ8ᗝИNᗩ옷⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀◯⠀⠀⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀◌⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⊚⠀⠀ⵙ⠀옷ᗩИNᗝ8Ⓞ✻⠀ⵙ⠀Ⓞꗳ⠀ⵙ⠀ИNᑎ✤ᔓᔕ⠀ⵙ⠀⠀⠀⠀.TXT @@ -0,0 +1,15108 @@ + +Handbook of +Nuts +James A. Duke, Ph.D . +0 +CRC Press +Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. +Cover image courtesy of +T. Michael Kengla +GrassRoots Productions +Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data +Duke, James A., 1929- +Handbook of nuts / author, James A. Duke. +p. cm .- (Herbal reference library series) +Rev. ed. of: CRC handbook of nuts, c l 989. +Includes bibliographical references (p. ). +ISBN 0-8493-3637-6 (alk. paper) +1. Nuts-Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Duke, James A., 1929- CRC handbook of nuts. +II. Title. III. Series. +SB401.A4 D84 2000 +634'.5—99%) +following vasicine extraction could conceivably serve as a pesticidal mulch or for conversion +to alcohol. Perhaps this should be viewed like the neem tree in the third world, stripping +the leaves as a pesticidal mulch, using the woody “ skeleton” for firewood. +Biotic factors — Fungi reported attacking this plant include the following species: Ae- +cidium adhatodaCy Alternaría tenuissima, Cercospora adhatodar, Chnoospora butleri, +Phomopsis acanthi (Phoma acanthi).^^^ Plants are parasitized by Cuscuta reflexa. Not browsed +by goats or other animals. One source states that this plant “ is never attacked by any +insect . . . even the voracious eater, Bihar Hairy Catterpillar (sic) {Dieresia obliqua) avoids +this plant. +8 Handbook of Nuts +ALEURITES FORDII Hemsl. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Tung-Oil Tree +Uses — Tung trees are cultivated for their seeds, the endosperm of which supplies a +superior quick-drying oil, utilized in the manufacture of lacquers, varnishes, paints, linoleum, +oilcloth, resins, artificial leather, felt-base floor coverings, and greases, brake-linings and +in clearing and polishing compounds. Tung oil products are used to coat containers for food, +beverages, and medicines; for insulating wires and other metallic surfaces, as in radios, +radar, telephone, and telegraph instruments. +Folk medicine — Reported to be emetic, hemostat, and poisonous, tung-oil tree is a folk +remedy for bums, edema, ejaculation, masturbation, scabies, swelling, and trauma. +Chemistry — The fmit contains 14 to 20%; the kernel, 53 to 60%; and the nut, 30 to +40% oil. The oil contains 75 to 80% alpha-elaeo stearic-, 15% oleic-, ca 4% palmitic-, and +ca. 1% stearic acids. Tannins, phytosterols, and a poisonous saponin are also reported. +Description — Trees up to 12 m tall and wide, bark smooth, wood soft; leaves dark +green, up to 15 cm wide, heart-shaped, sometimes lobed, appearing usually just after, but +sometimes just before flowering; flowers in clusters, whitish, rose-throated, produced in +early spring from terminal buds of shoots of the previous season; monoecious, male and +female flowers in same inflorescence, usually with the pistillate flowers surrounded by several +staminate flowers; fruits spherical, pear-shaped or top shaped, green to purple at maturity, +with 4 to 5 carpels each with one seed; seeds usually 4 to 5, but may vary from 1 to 15, 2 +to 3.2 cm long, 1.3 to 2.5 cm wide, consisting of a hard outer shell and a kernel from which +the oil is obtained. Flowers February to March; fmits late September to early November. +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan and North American Centers of Diversity, +tung-oil tree, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, disease, frost, insects, poor +soil, and slope.High-yielding cultivars continue to be developed. Some of the best cvs +released by the USDA for growing in the southern U.S. are the following: +• ‘Folsom’: low-heading, high productivity; fruits large, late maturing, turning purplish +when mature, containing 21% oil; highest resistance to low temperature in fall. +• ‘GahT: low-heading, productive; fruits large, 20% oil content; matures early, somewhat +resistant to cold in fall. +• ‘Isabel’: low-heading, highly productive; fruits large, maturing early, 22% oil content. +• ‘La Crosse’: High-heading, exceptional productivity; fruits small, late maturing, tend­ +ing to break segments if not harvested promptly, 21 to 14% oil content; a very popular +cv. +• ‘Lampton’: out-yields all other varieties; very low-heading; fruits large, early maturing; +22% oil content. +Several other species of Aleurites are used to produce tung-oil, usually of low quality: +Aleurites cordata, Japanese wood-oil tree; A. moluccana, Candlenut or lumbang tree; A. +trisperma. Soft Lumbang tree; none of which can be grown commercially in the U.S. +Aleurites montana. Mu-tree, is the prevailing commercial species in South China and could +be grown in F l o r i d a . ( z n = zz.) +Distribution — Native to central and western China, where seedlings have been planted +for thousands of years; planted in the southern U.S. from Florida to eastern Texas. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to +Moist Forest Life Zones, tung-oil tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to +21.0 dm (mean of 22 cases = 14.0), temperature of 18.7 to 27.0°C (mean of 21 cases = +24.0°C), pH of 5.4 to 7.1 (mean of 5 cases = 6.2).^^ Tung trees are very exacting in +climatic and soil requirements. They require long, hot summers with abundant moisture, +with usually at least 112 cm of rainfall rather evenly distributed through the year. Trees +require 350 to 400 hr in winter with temperatures 7.2°C or lower; without this cold require­ +ment, trees tend to produce suckers from the main branches. Vigorous but not succulent +growth is most cold-resistant; trees are susceptible to cold injury when in active growth. +Production of tung is best where day and night temperatures are uniformly warm. Much +variation reduces tree growth and fruit size. Trees grow best if planted on hilltops or slopes, +as good air-drainage reduces losses from spring frosts. Contour-planting on high rolling land +escapes frost damage. Tung makes its best growth on virgin land. Soils must be well-drained, +deep aerated, and have a high moisture-holding capacity to be easily penetrated by the roots. +Green manure crops and fertilizers may be needed. Dolomitic lime may be used to correct +excessive acidity; pH 6.0 to 6.5 is best; liming is beneficial to most soils in the Tung Belt, +the more acid soils requiring greater amounts of lime.*^’^^* +Cultivation — Tung trees may be propagated by seed or by budding. Seedlings generally +vary considerably from parent plants in growth and fruiting characters. Seedlings which +have been self-pollinated for several generations give rather uniform plants. Only 1 out of +100 selected “ mother” tung trees will produce seedlings sufficiently uniform for commercial +planting. However, a “ mother” tree proven worthy by progeny testing may be propagated +by budding. The budded trees, which are genetically identical with the original tree, will +provide an adequate supply of seed satisfactory for planting. Seedlings are used for the root +system for budded trees. Buds from “ mother” trees are inserted in stems of 1-year old +seedlings, 5 to 7.5 cm above the surface of the soil. Later, the original seedling top is cut +off and a new top grown for the transplanted bud, making the tops of budded trees parts of +the parent tree. Usually seedling trees outgrow budded trees, but budded trees produce larger +crops and are more uniform in production, oil content, and date of fruit maturity. Tung seed +are normally short-lived and must be planted during the season following harvest. Seeds are +best hulled before planting, as hulls retard germination. Hulled seed may be planted dry, +but soaking in water for 5 to 7 days hastens germination. Stratification, cold treatment or +chemical treatment of seeds brings about more rapid and uniform germination. Dry-stored +seed should be planted no later than February; stratified seed by mid-March; cold-treated +and chemical treated seed by early April. Seed may be planted either by hand or with a +modified corn-planter, the seed spaced 15 to 20 cm apart, about 5 cm, in rows 1.6 m apart, +depending on the equipment to be used for cultivation and for digging the trees. Seeds +germinate in 60 days or more; hence weed and grass control may be a serious problem. As +soon as seedlings emerge, a side-dressing of fertilizer (5-10-5) with commercial zinc sulfate +should be applied. Fertilizer is applied at rate of 600 kg/ha, in bands along each side of +row, 20 cm from seedlings and 5 to 7.5 cm deep. Other fertilizers may be needed, depending +on the soil. Most successful budding is done in late August, by the simple shield method, +requiring a piece of budstock bark, including a bud, that will fit into a cut in the rootstock +bar; a T-shaped cut is made in the bark of the rootstock at a point 5 to 7.5 cm above ground +level, the flaps of bark loosened, shield-bud slipped inside flaps, and the flaps tied tightly +over the transplanted bud with rubber budding stripe, 12 cm long, 0.6 cm wide, 0.002 thick. +After about 7 days, the rubber stripe is cut to prevent binding. As newly set buds are +susceptible to cold injury, soil is mounded over them for winter. When growth starts in +spring, soil is pulled back and each stock cut back to within 3.5 cm of the dormant bud. +Later, care consists of keeping all suckers removed and the trees well-cultivated. Trees are +transplanted to the orchard late the following winter. Spring budding is done only as a last +resort. Trees may be planted at 125 to 750/ha. When trees are small, close planting in rows +greatly increases the bearing surface, but at maturity the bearing surface of a crowded row +is about the same as that of a row with trees farther apart. However, it is well to leave +enough space between row for orchard operations. In contour-planting, distances between +rows and total number of trees per hectare vary; rows 10 to 12 m apart, trees spaced 3.3 to +4 m apart in rows, 250 to 350 trees/ha. Tops of nursery trees must be pruned back to 20 to +10 Handbook of Nuts +25 cm at planting. As growth starts, all buds are rubbed off except the one strongest growing +and best placed on the tree. A bud 5 cm or more below the top of the stump is preferred +over one closer to top.^^^ +Harvesting — Tung trees usually begin bearing fruit the third year after planting, and +are usually in commercial production by the fourth or fifth year, attaining maximum pro­ +duction in 10 to 12 years. Average life of trees in the U.S. is 30 years. Fruits mature and +drop to ground in late September to early November. At this time they contain about 60% +moisture. Fruits must be dried to 15% moisture before processing. Fruits should be left on +the ground 3 to 4 weeks until hulls are dead and dry, and the moisture content has dropped +below 30%. Fruits are gathered by hand into baskets or sacks. Fruits do not deteriorate on +the ground until they germinate in spring. +Yields and economics — Trees yield 4.5 to 5 tons/ha. An average picker can gather 60 +to 80 bushels of fruits per day, depending on conditions of the orchard. Fruits may be +gathered all through the winter season when other crops do not need care. Because all fruits +do not fall at the same time, 2 or more harvestings may be desirable to get the maximum +yield. Fruits are usually sacked, placed in the crotch of the tree and allowed to dry 2 to 3 +weeks before delivery to the mill. Additional drying may be done at the mill, but wet fruits +contain less oil percentage-wise and prices will be lower. Prices for tung oil depend on price +supports, domestic production, imports, and industrial demands. World production in 1969 +was 107,000 MT of tung nuts; in 1970, 143,000; and projected for 1980, 199,000. Wholesale +prices were about $0.276/kg; European import prices, $0.335/kg. Growers received about +$51.10/ton of fruit of 18.5% oil content to about $63.10/ton for fruits of 22% oil content. +Major producing countries are mainland China and South America (Argentina and Paraguay); +the U.S. and Africa produce much less. U.S. Bureau of Census figures 1,587,000 pounds +of tung oil were consumed during February of 1982, representing a 1,307,000 pound drop +from January. The largest application for the oil is paint and varnish, which accounted for +566,000 pounds of total consumption in F e b r u a r y .D e a l e r s in tung oil include:^^^ +Alnore Oil Co., Inc. Pacific Anchor Chemical Corp. +P.O. Box 699 6055 E. Washington Boulevard +Valley Stream, NY 11582 Los Angeles, CA 90040 +Industrial Oil Products Corp. Welch, Holme, & Clark Co., Inc. +375 N. Broadway 1000 S. 4th Street +Jericho, NY 11753 Harrison, NJ 07029 +Kraft Chemical Co. +1975 N. Hawthorene Avenue +Melrose Park, IL 60160 +Energy — During World War II, the Chinese used tung oil for motor fuel. It tended to +gum up the engines, so they processed it to make it compatible with gasoline. The mixture +worked fine,^"^^ Gaydou et al.^®^ reported yields of 4 to 6 MT/ha, converting to 1,800 to +2,700 € oil per ha, equivalent to 17,000 to 25,500 kWh/ha. +Biotic factors — Bees are needed to transfer pollen from anthers to pistil. When staminate +and pistillate flowers are on separate trees, 1 staminate tree for 20 pistillate trees should be +planted in the orchard. Pollination can occur over several days. Tung trees are relatively +free of insects and diseases, only a few causing losses serious enough to justify control +measures: e.g., Botroyosphaeria rihis, Clitocybe tabescens, Mycosphaerella aleuritidis. +Pellicularia koleroga, Physalospora rhodina and the bacterium. Pseudomonas aleuritidis. +Other bacteria and fungi reported on tung trees are Armillaria mellea, Botryodiplodia theo- +11 +bromae, Cephaleures virescens, Cercospora aleuritidis, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, +Corticium koleroga, Fomes lamaoensis, F. lignosus, Fusarium heterosporum forma aleu­ +ritidis, F. oxysporum, F. scirpi, F. solani, Ganoderma pseudoferreum, Coleosporium aleu- +riticum, Glomerella cingulata, Pestalotia dichaeta, Phyllosticta microspora, Phytomonas +syringae, Phytophthora omnivor a, Ph. cinnamomi, Poria hypolateritia, Pythium aphani- +dermatum, Rhizoctonia solani, Septobasidium aleuritidis, S. pseudopedicellatum, Sphae- +rostilbe repens, Uncinula miyabei var. aleuritis, Ustilina maxima, U. zonata. Insect pests +are not a serious problem, since fruit and leaves of tung trees are toxic to most animal life. +Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. have been reported. +12 Handbook of Nuts +ALEURITES MOLUCCANA (L.) Willd. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Candlenut Oil Tree, Can- +dleberry, Varnish Tree, Indian or Belgium Walnut, Lumbang Oil +Syn.: Aleurites triloba Forst., Croton moluccanus L. +Uses — Seed yields 57 to 80% of inedible, semi-drying oil, liquid at ordinary temperatures, +solidifying at - 15°C, and containing oleostearic acid. The oil is quicker drying than linseed +oil, and is used as a wood preservative, for varnishes and paint oil, also as an illuminant, +for soap-making, waterproofing paper, in India rubber substitutes and insulating masses. +Fruits said to be used as a fish poison. Seeds are moderately poisonous and press cake is +used as fertilizer. Kernels, when roasted and cooked are considered edible; may be strung +as candlenuts. Oil is painted on bottoms of small craft to protect against marine borers. +Tung oil, applied to cotton bolls, stops boll weevils from eating them; also prevents feeding +by striped cucumber beetle. +Folk medicine — Bark used on tumors in Japan. Reported to be aperient, aphrodisiac, +laxative, poison, purgative, stimulant, sudorific, candlenut oil tree is a folk remedy for +asthma, debility, sores, swelling, tumors, unconsciousness, womb ailments, and wounds. +The oil is purgative and sometimes used like castor oil. In China, it is applied to sciatica. +Kernels are laxative, stimulant, and sudorific. The irritant oil is rubbed on scalp as a hair +stimulant. In Sumatra, pounded seeds, burned with charcoal, are applied round the navel +for costiveness. Leaves are applied for rheumatism in the Philippines. In Malaya, the pulped +kernel enters poultices for headche, fevers, ulcers, and swollen joints. Boiled leaves are +applied to headache, scrofula, swollen joints, and ulcers. In Java, the bark is used for bloody +diarrhea or dysentery. Bark juice with coconut milk is used for sprue and thrush. Malayans +apply boiled leaves to the temples for headache, and to the pubes for gonnorhea.^^ In Yunani +medicine, the oil is considered anodyne, aphrodisiac, and cardiotonic, and the fruit is +recommended for the brain, bronchitis, bruises, heart, hydrophobia, liver, piles, ringworm, +and watery eyes. In Ayurvedic medicine, the fruit is considered apertif, aphrodisiac, anti- +bilious, cardiac, depurative, and refrigerant. +Chemistry — The oil cake, containing ca. 46.2% protein, 4.4% P2O5, and 2.0% K2O, +13 +is said to be poisonous. A toxalbumin and HCN have been suggested. Bark contains ca. 4 +to 6% tannin. Oil also contains glycerides of linolenic, oleic and various linoleic acids. Per +100 g, the seed is reported to contain 626 calories, 7.0 g H2O, 19.0 g protein, 63.0 g fat, +8.0 g total carbohydrate, 3.0 g ash, 80 mg Ca, 200 mg P, 2.0 mg Fe, 0 mg beta-carotene +equivalent, 0.06 mg thiamine, and 0 mg ascorbic acid.^^ +Description — Medium-sized tree, up to 20 m tall, ornamental, with spreading or pen­ +dulous branches; leaves simple, variable in shape, young leaves large, up to 30 cm long, +palmate, with 3 to 7 acuminate lobes, shining, while leaves on mature trees are ovate, entire, +and acuminate, long-petioled, whitish above when young, becoming green with age, with +rusty stellate pubescence beneath when young, and persisting on veins and petiole; flowers +in rusty-pubescent panicled cymes 10 to 15 cm long; petals 5, dingy white or creamy, +oblong, up to 1.3 cm long; ovary 2-celled; fruit an indéhiscent drupe, roundish, 5 cm or +more in diameter, with thick rough hard shell making up 64 to 68% of fruit, difficult to +separate from kernels; containing 1 or 2 seeds. Flowers April to May (Sri Lanka). +Germpiasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, Aleurites +moluccana, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH, low pH, poor soil, and slope. +(2n = 44,22). +Distribution — Native to Malaysia, Polynesia, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, and South +Seas Islands; now widely distributed in tropics. Naturalized or cultivated in Malagasy, Sri +Lanka, southern India, Bangladesh, Brazil, West Indies, and the Gulf Coast of the U.S.^^® +Ecology — Candlenut trees thrive in moist tropical regions, up to 1,200 m altitude. +Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, +Aleurites moluccana is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.9 dm (mean of +14 cases = 19.4) annual temperature of 18.7 to 27.4°C (mean of 14 cases = 24.6) and pH +of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 7 cases = 6.4).^^ +Cultivation — Usually propagated from seed, requiring 3 to 4 months to germinate. +Seedlings planted 3(X)/ha. Once established, trees require little to no attention. +Harvesting — Bear two heavy crops each year. After harvesting mature fruits, it is +difficult to separate kernels from shell, as the kernels adhere to sides of shell. +Yields and economics — Asa plantation crop, tree yields are estimated at 5 to 20 tons/ha +of nuts, each tree producing 30 to 80 kg. Oil production varies from 15 to 20% of nut +weight. Most oil produced in India, Sri Lanka, and other tropical regions is used locally +and does not figure into international trade. In the past, oil has sold for 12 to 14 pounds +per ton in England. According to the Chemical Marketing Reporter,tung oil prices (then +ca. $.65/lb) are likely to rise in the near future if demand remains adequate and Argentinean +and Paraguayan suppliers pressure the U.S. market by charging high prices for replacement +oil. U.S. imports for the first quarter of 1981 were 58% higher than 1980, despite the absence +of Chinese tung from the market. +Energy — Nut yields are estimated at 80 kg/tree, which, spaced at 200 trees per hectare, +would suggest 16 MT/ha/yr, about 20% of which (3 MT) would be oil, suitable, with +modification, for diesel uses, the residues for conversion to alcohol or pyrolysis. Fruit yields +may range from 4 to 20 MT/ha/yr. Commercial production of oil yields 12 to 18% of the +weight of the dry unhulled fruits, the fruits being air-dried to ca. 12 to 15% moisture before +pressing. The pomace contains 4.5 to 5% oil. This suggests that the “ chaff factor” might +be ca 0.8. Oil yields as high as 3,100 kg/ha have been reported. As of June 15, 1981, tung +oil was $0.65/lb, compared to $0.38 for peanut oil, $1.39 for poppyseed oil, $0.33 for +linseed oil, $0.275 for coconut oil, $0.265 for cottonseed oil, $0.232 for com oil, and $0.21 +for soybean oil.^^^ At $2.(X) per gallon, gasoline is roughly $0.25/lb. +Biotic factors — Following fungi are known to attack candlenut-oil tree: Cephalosporium +sp., Clitocybe tabescens, Fomes hawaiensis, Gloeosporium aleuriticum, Phasalospora rhod- +ina, Polyporus gilvus, Pythium ultimum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Sphaeronaema reinkingii, Tra- +metes corrugata, Xylaria curta, Ustulina deusta.^^^ +14 Handbook of Nuts +ALEURITES MONTANA (Lour.) Wils. (ANACARDIACEAE) — Wood-Oil Tree, Mu-Oil +Tree +Uses — Kernels yield a valuable drying oil, largely used in paints, varnishes, and lino­ +leums. Also used locally for illumination and lacquer-work. Varnish made from this plant +possess a high degree of water-resistance, gloss, and durability. There are only slight dif­ +ferences between the oils of A. montana and A. fordii}^^ +Folk medicine — The oil is applied to furuncles and ulcers. +Chemistry — The oil content of the seed is ca. 50 to 60%. Oil consists chiefly of +glycerides of beta-elaeostearic and oleic acids, and probably a little linoleic acid. Oil cake +residue is poisonous and is only fit for manuring. +Description — A small tree about 5 m tall, much-branched, partially deciduous, dioecious. +Leaves simple, ovate or more or less cordate, apex cuspidate, about 12 cm long, 10 cm +broad, sometimes larger and 3-lobed; leaf-blade with 2 large, conspicuous glands at base, +petiole up to 24 cm long. Flowers monoecious, petals large, white, up to 3 cm long. Fruits +egg-shaped, 3-lobed, wrinkled, about 5 cm in diameter, pointed at summit, flattened at base, +generally with 3 or 4 one-seeded segments, the outer surface with wavy transverse ridges, +the pericarp thick, hard, and weedy. Flowers and fruits March. +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, mu-oil tree, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH, poor soil, and slope. (2n = 22. +Distribution — Native to South China and some of the S. Shan States (Burma). Introduced +and cultivated successfully in Indochina (where it has replaced A. fordii), Malawi, and in +cooler parts of Florida, and other tropical regions. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest +Life Zones, mu-oil tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.7 to 20.2 dm (mean +of 8 cases = 13.6), annual temperature of 14.8 to 26.5°C (mean of 8 cases = 21.9°C), +and pH of 5.5 to 8.0 (mean of 6 cases = 6.2).®^ Adapted to subtropical regions and high +elevations with moderate rainfall. Mainly a hillside species, it can thrive in warmer climates +and will withstand heavier rainfall than A.fordii, provided the area is well-drained. Maximum +temperature 35.5°C, minimum temperature 6°C. It is frost-tender, and does not require a +low temperature (below 3°C) as tung-oil trees {A. fordii) do, so can be grown in warmer +regions. In Assam, grown where rainfall is 175 to 275 cm annually; in Mysore at elevations +of 800 to 1,000 m with annual rainfall of 150 cm. Grows well in alluvial soils and is not +very exacting in its soil requirements. In richer soils, the growth is more vigorous. A slightly +acid soil is preferable. +Cultivation — Trees are propagated from seeds or by budding. In Malawi, propagation +is by budding from high-yielding clones. Seeds are usually planted in a nursery and may +take from 2 to 3 months to germinate. When seedlings are about 1 year old, they are planted +out, spaced 6.6 x 6.6 m or more. Cultural practices are similar to those for A. fordii. As +soon as the seedlings emerge, a side-dressing of fertilizer (5-10-5) of nitrogen and phos­ +phorus, along with commercial zinc sulfate, should be applied. Fertilizer is applied at rate +of 6(X) kg/ha, in bands along each side of row, 20 cm from seedlings and 5 to 7.5 cm deep. +Other fertilizers may be needed, depending on the soil. According to Spurling and Spurling,^’^ +N is the most important nutrient for tung in Malawi, irrespective of climate or soil. Most +successful budding is done in late August, by the simple shield method, requiring a piece +of budstick bark, including a bud, that will fit into a cut in the rootstock bark. A T-shaped +cut is made in bark of rootstock at a point 5 to 7.5 cm above ground level, the flaps of bark +loosened, shield-bud slipped inside flaps, and the flaps tied tightly over the transplanted bud +with rubber budding strip 12 cm long and 0.6 cm wide. After about 7 days, the rubber strip +is cut to prevent binding. As newly set buds are susceptible to cold injury, soil is mounded +over them for winter. When growth starts in spring, soil is pulled back and each stock cut +15 +back to within 3.5 cm of the dormant bud. Later care consists of keeping all suckers removed +and the trees well-cultivated. Trees may be planted 125 to 750/ha. When trees are small, +close planting in rows greatly increases the bearing surface, but at maturity the bearing +surface of a crowded row is about the same as for a row with trees further apart. However, +it is well to leave enough space between rows for orchard operations. In contour-planting, +distances between rows and total number of trees per hectare vary; rows 10 to 12 m apart, +trees spaced 3.3 to 4 m apart in rows, 250 to 350 trees/ha. Tops of trees must be pruned +back to 20 to 25 cm at planting. As growth starts, all buds are rubbed off except the one +strongest growing and best placed on the tree. A bud 5 cm or more below the top of stump +is preferred over one closer to the top.^^^’^*^ +Harvesting — Trees begin bearing 2 to 5 years after transplanting with maximum pro­ +duction reached in 8 years and continuing for 40 years. In northern Burma, it has been +observed to be more vigorous and disease-resistant than A. fordii. In Indochina, it has been +successfully planted and its oil is now being produced on a commercial scale, replacing that +of A. fordii. Fruits mature and drop to ground in late September to early November. They +are gathered and dried to 15% moisture before processing. Fruits should be left on the ground +3 to 4 weeks until hulls are dead and dry, and the moisture content has dropped below 30%; +fresh they are about 60% moisture. Fruits are gathered by hand into baskets or sacks. +Yields and economics — A. montana is reported to give much higher yields of fruits +than A. fordii. The percentage of kernels in the seeds is about 56%, and of oil in the kernels, +about 59.3%. Major producers of the oil from A. montana are Burma, Indochina (Vietnam, +Cambodia, Laos), Malawi, Congo, East Africa, South Africa, Malagasy Republic, India, +and U.S.S.R. It has been considered for introduction in Florida. +Energy — Yields of oil per tree in China is figured to be about 3.2 kg; in Florida, 4.5 +to 9 kg. Trees yield about 45 to 68 kg nuts per year, these yielding about 35 to 40% oil. +In one Malawi trial, N treatments gave an increase of 519 kg/ha dry seed over a trial mean +of 1070 kg/ha. With tung cake and ammonium sulphate, air dry tung seed yields of 12 to +17 year old trees was 2013 to 2367 kg/ha, of 6 to 9 year olds 766 to 1546 kg/ha. +Biotic factors — Fungi reported on A. montana include the following: Armillaria mellea, +Botryodiplodia theobromae, Botryosphaeria ribis, Cephaleuros mycoidea, C. virescens, +Cercospora aleuritidis, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides var. aleuritidis, Corticium koleroga, +C. solani (Rhizoctonia solani), Corynespora cassiicola, Diplodia theobromae, Fusarium +arthrosporioides, F. lateritium, Glomerella cingulata, Haplosporella aleurites, Mycospha- +erella aleuritidis, Periconia byssoides, Pestalotiopsis disseminata, P. glandicola, P. ja­ +pónica, P. versicolor, Pestalotia dichaeta, Phyllosticta microspora, Pseudocampton +fasciculatum, Rhizoctonia lanellifera, Schizophyllum commune, Thyronectriapseudotrichia, +Trametes occidentalis, Ustulina zonata.^^^ +16 Handbook of Nuts +AMPHICARPAEA BRACTEATA (L.) Femald (FABACEAE) — Hog Peanut, Wild Peanut +Uses — Ojibwa Indians were said to eat both roots and seeds cooked. (There’s not much +to the roots.) Meskwaki (Fox) Indians learned that mice gathered the underground nuts and +laid them up in stores, which stores the Indians gathered for themselves (Dakota Indians +were said to leave com or other food in exchange). The subterranean seeds are more important +as food. They have been likened to garden-bean in flavor, the aerial seeds to soybeans. As +late as November in Maryland, the subterranean seeds may be tracked from the dying +yellow/brown tops. If eaten raw, seeds might be soaked in warm water or water with +hardwood ashes. In October, when both Amphicarpaea and Apios seeds are available, I find +both the aerial and subterranean seeds of the Amphicarpaea seeds much more pleasing to +the palate raw than the Apios seeds. Gallaher and Buhr^®^ speculate that the subterranean +seeds may “ have survival-potential under conditions of intense grazing.” I suggest that the +subterranean seeds might not set in tightly packed sod. Both aerial and subterranean seeds +are eaten by bear, chipmunk, deer, grouse, mice, pheasant, prairie chicken, quail, and wild +turkey. Vines are browsed by livestock and probably deer. Once cultivated in southern U.S., +hog peanuts have been suggested for planting in poultry forage systems and for intercropping +with com and perhaps ginseng. All members of the genus can be important in soil improve­ +ment, as soil cover, and in erosion control.® +Folk medicine — Chippewa drank the root with other roots as a general physic, while, +conversely, the Cherokee used it for diarrhea. Cherokee also blew the root tea onto snakebite +wounds."^ +17 +Chemistry — Marshall'^^^ notes that the aerial seeds, with flavor similar to soybeans, +contain ca. 30% protein, 7 to 16% oil. The oil contains 10.3 to 10.4% palmitic-, 1.3 to +1.6% stearic-, 24.9 to 26.7% oleic-, 54.8 to 58.5% linoleic-, and 6.5 to 7.6% linolenic- +acids. The cleistogamous, underground seeds, weighing as much as 1 g each, may contain +50% water. Their oil content is lower, and the protein content may be only 14.3%, perhaps'^®'* +reflecting the higher water content.Lectins are also reported. Gallaher and Buhr^®^ analyzed +Tennessee fodder during early pod-fill stage, reporting for the whole plant ca. 89% organic +matter, 26.5 g/kg N, 2.4 g/kg P, 14.2 g/kg K, 17.3 g/kg Ca, 4.1 g/kg Mg, 20 ppm Cu, 40 +ppm Zn, 120 ppm Mn, and 360 ppm Fe, averaging slightly lower than pegging peanut +forage, but higher in P, Ca, Mn, and Fe. Crude protein in the hog peanut forage was over +16%, slightly below the peanut forage. +Description — Weak, twining, climbing annual (though often cited as perennial) to 2 m +long, the stems sparsely appressed short-pubescent to densely villous. Leaves 3-foliolate; +leaflets entire, ovate to rhombic-ovate, the laterals often asymmetrical, 2 to 10 cm long, +petiolulate, stipellate; usually pubescent. Axillary racemes of 1 to 17 petaliferous flowers, +on peduncles 1 to 6 cm long, the ovate bracts 2 to 5 mm long; pedicels 1.5 to 5 mm long; +racemes from lower axils slender, elongate, with cleistogamous, apetalous, inconspicuous +flowers. Calyx of petaliferous flowers narrowly campanulate; tube 4 to 6 mm long, ca. 2 +mm in diameter; upper 2 lobes united, or nearly so, glabrous to densely appressed-pubescent; +petals pale purple or lilac to white, 9 to 16 mm long; stamens of the petaliferous flowers +diadelphous, 9 and 1; ovary stipitate, style not bearded. Legume from petaliferous flowers +flattened, oblong-linear, 1.5 to 4 cm long, 7-10 mm broad, often 3-seeded, valves laterally +twisting in dehiscence; fruit from cleistogamous flowers fleshy, often subterranean, usually +1-seeded, indéhiscent, cryptocotylar.^^^ Duke"^®^ recognizes four different flower/fruit +combinations: +1. Subterranean seed, whose cleistogamous flowers never left the soil (usually one or +two); the biggest, juiciest, softest, and most edible (15% protein). For propagation in +situ. +2. Geotropic seed from cleistogamous flowers at the tip of branches originating in the +axils of the first simple aerial leaves. Usually solitary, soft, plump. For propagation +nearby. +3. Aerial cleistogamous flowers, whose pods, and usually single hard seeds, develop +strictly above ground. For dispersal. +4. Aerial chasmogamous flowers followed by pods with usually three small hard seeds +(the smallest, driest, hardest, and least edible, yet 30% protein). For longer distance +dispersal. The type 4 flower/fruits are said to occur mostly in sunny situations. If the +forest is cleared, the increased sunlight would trigger more dispersal seed, enhancing +the chances to move the plant back into the forest. +Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, hog peanut, or +CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate alluvium, muck, mulch, sand, shade, slope, and brief +waterlogging. A. bracteata is said to merge imperceptibly with var. comosa, which grows +on richer, often calcareous or alluvial soil. Turner and Fearing"^ concluded the genus +contained only three species, A. africana in the cool high mountains of Africa, A. edgeworthii +in the Himalayas and eastern Asia, and the American A. bracteata, the latter two nearly +indistinguishable. (2n = 20,40.) +Distribution — Native to damp shaded woodlands from Quebec to Manitoba and Montana, +south to Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Warm Temperate Moist to Wet through Cool Tem­ +perate Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, hog peanut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation +18 Handbook of Nuts +of 8 to 20 dm, annual temperature of 8 to 14°C, and pH of 5.5 to 7.5. Although native to +damp shaded forest, the plant can be cultivated in sandy, sunny situations. The underground +seed must have very different chemistry, ecology, and physiology, destined for immediate +survival and not dispersal, as contrasted to the aerial seed, destined for long-term dispersal. +Cultivation — Said to have been cultivated in the South, but few details are available. +W. G. Dore"*^^ sterilizes his soil, plants in the fall, and mulches with such things as sawdust, +peat moss, vermiculite, and/or organic muck. Gas-sterilization is all but imperative to control +weeds since the clambering habit of the vine precludes cultivation. In fertile soils in full +sun, the one-seeded beans grow large and succulent, comparable to peanuts, or even lima +beans. Frey'*^’ suggests intercropping the hog peanut with com. +Harvesting — The large seeds appear beneath the dead leaves, generally just under the +surface of the ground. In weed-free culture, the tangled vines can be raked off preparatory +to harvest in fall. In loose sandy soil, the seeds separate out easily with a quarter inch screen. +Harvested seed tend to germinate in the refrigerator, if not frozen. +Yields and economics — Unpublished research by W. G. Dore"^^ reported yields as high +as 1 kg seed per 10 m row. His seed were fall-planted about 10 cm apart in gas-sterilized +sandy loam. +Energy — Both biomass (ca. 5 g per plant) and oil yields are low. The biomass raked +up before harvesting could conceivably be converted to energy. The nitrogen fixed by the +plant could be energetically important, in pastures, forests, and in intercropping scenarios. +Biotic factors — Agriculture Handbook No. 165"^ lists the following as affecting Am- +phicarpaea bracteata: Cercospora monoica (leaf spot), and Erysiphe poly goni (powdery +mildew). Agriculture Handbook No. 165,"^ without reference to a specific species, also lists: +Colletotrichum sp. (leaf spot), Parodiella perisporioides (black mildew), Puccinia andrò- +pogonis var. onobrychidis (rust), and Synchytrium aecidioides (false mst, leaf gall). Allen +and Allen^ report that earlier studies showed a relative inability of the hog peanut Rhizobium +to nodulate legumes from 21 diverse genera. Later plant-infection studies discounted this +exclusiveness by showing plant-infection kinships within the cowpea miscellany. Larvae of +Rivella pallida Lowe, a common and widely distributed species of the dipteran family +Platystomatidae (and a potential pest of soybean), attack the N2-fixing root nodules of +Amphicarpaea. The nodular contents are completely destroyed, thus eliminating the nodule’s +ability to fix N2. Up to 25% of an individual’s nodules are damaged in northeastern Ohio. +There is one and perhaps a partial second generation per year in northern Ohio, with +overwintering occurring as mature larvae in diapause. Eight species of neartic Rivellia +(including R. flavimana Loew and R. metallica (Walp)) occur on Amphicarpaea bracteata +(L.).**®® Chasmogamous flowers are pollinated primarily by Bombus affinis."^ +19 +ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE L. (ANACARDIACEAE) — Cashew +Uses — Many parts of the cashew plant are used. The cashew “ apple” , the enlarged +fully ripe fruit, may be eaten raw, or preserved as jams or sweetmeats. The juice is made +into a beverage (Brazil cajuado) or fermented into a wine. Seeds of the cashew are consumed +whole, roasted, shelled and salted, in Madeira wine, or mixed in chocolates. Shelling the +roasted seed yields the cashew nut of commerce. Seeds yield about 45% of a pale yellow, +bland, edible oil, resembling almond oil. From the shells or hulls is extracted a black, acrid, +powerful vesicant oil, used as a preservative and water-proofing agent in insulating varnishes, +in manufacture of typewriter rolls; in oil- and acid-proof cements and tiles, in brake-linings, +as an excellent lubricant in magneto armatures in airplanes, and for termite-proofing timbers. +Timber is used in furniture making, boat building, packing cases and in the production of +charcoal. Bark used in tanning. Stems exude a clear gum, Cashawa gum, used in phar­ +maceuticals and as substitute for gum arabic. Juice turns black on exposure to air and +provides an indelible ink. Along the coast of Orissa, shelter belts and wind breaks, planted +to stabilize sand dunes and protect the adjacent fertile agricultural land from drifting sand, +have yielded economic cashew crops 5 years after planting. +Folk medicine — The fruit bark juice and the nut oil are both said to be folk remedies +for calluses, corns, and warts, cancerous ulcers, and even elephantiasis. Anacardol and +anacardic acid have shown some activity against Walker carcinosarcoma 256. Decoction of +the astringent bark given for severe diarrhea and thrush. Old leaves are applied to skin +afflictions and bums (tannin applied to bums is hepatocarcinogenic). Oily substance from +pericarp used for cracks on the feet. Cuna Indians used the bark in herb teas for asthma, +colds, and congestion. The seed oil is believed to be alexeritic and amebicidal; used to treat +gingivitis, malaria, and syphilitic ulcers. Ayurvedic medicine recommends the fmit for +anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, ascites, dysentery, fever, inappetence, leucoderma, piles, tumors, +and obstinate ulcers.In the Gold Coast, the bark and leaves are used for sore gums and +toothache. Juice of the fmit is used for hemoptysis. Sap discutient, fungicidal, repellent. +Leaf decoction gargled for sore throat. Cubans use the resin for cold treatments. The plant +exhibits hypoglycemic activity. In Malaya, the bark decoction is used for diarrhea. In +Indonesia, older leaves are poulticed onto bums and skin diseases. Juice from the apple is +used to treat quinsy in Indonesia, dysentery in the Philippines. +20 Handbook of Nuts +Toxicity — He who cuts the wood or eats cashew nuts or stirs his drink with a cashew +swizzle stick is possibly subject to a dermatitis. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 542 calories, 7.6 g H2O, +17.4 g protein, 43.4 g fat, 29.2 g total carbohydrate, 1.4 g fiber, 2.4 g ash, 76 mg Ca, 578 +mg P, 18.0 mg Fe, 0.65 mg thiamine, 0.25 mg riboflavin, 1.6 mg niacin, and 7 mg ascorbic +acid. Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 561 calories, 5.2 g H2O, 17.2 g +protein, 45.7 g fat, 29.3 g total carbohydrate, 1.4 g fiber, 2.6 g ash, 38 mg Ca, 373 mg +P, 3.8 mg Fe, 15 mg Na, 464 mg K, 60 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.43 mg thiamine, +0.25 mg riboflavin, and 1.8 mg niacin. Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain +533 calories, 2.7 g H2O, 15.2 g protein, 37.0 g fat, 42.0 g total carbohydrate, 1.4 g fiber, +3.1 g ash, 24 mg Ca, 580 mg P, 1.8 mg Fe, 0.85 mg thiamine, 0.32 mg riboflavin, and +2.1 mg niacin. The ‘’apples” (ca. 30 to 35 kg per tree per annum) yield each 20 to 25 cc +juice, which, rich in sugar, was once fermented in India for alcohol production. The apple +contains 87.9% water, 0.2% protein, 0.1% fat, 11.6% carbohydrate, 0.2% ash, 0.01% Ca, +0.01% P, .002% Fe, 0.26% vitamin C, and 0.09% carotene. The testa contains alpha- +catechin, beta-sitosterol, and 1-epicatechin; also proanthocyanadine leucocyanadine, and +leucopelargonidine. The dark color of the nut is due to an iron-polyphenol complex. The +shell oil contains about 90% anacardic acid (C22H32O3) and 10% cardol (C32ri2704). It yields +glycerides, linoleic, palmitic, stearic, and lignoceric acids, and sitosterol. Examining 24 +different cashews, Murthy and Yadava^^^ reported that the oil content of the shell ranged +from 16.6 to 32.9%, of the kernel from 34.5 to 46.8%. Reducing sugars ranged from 0.9 +to 3.2%, nonreducing sugars, 1.3 to 5.8%, total sugars from 2.4 to 8.7%, starch from 4.7 +to 11.2%. Gum exudates contain arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, and xylose. +Description — Spreading, evergreen, perennial tree to 12 m tall; leaves simple, alternate, +obovate, glabrous, penninerved, to 20 cm long, 15 cm wide, apically rounded or notched, +entire, short petiolate; flowers numerous in terminal panicles, 10 to 20 cm long, male or +female, green and reddish, radially symmetrical nearly; sepals 5; petals 5; stamens 10; ovary +one-locular, one-ovulate, style simple; fruit a reniform achene, about 3 cm long, 2.5 cm +wide, attached to the distal end of an enlarged pedicel and hypocarp, called the cashew- +apple. The fruit is shiny, red or yellowish, pear-shaped, soft, juicy, 10 to 20 cm long, 4 to +8 cm broad; fruit is reniform, edible, with two large white cotyledons and a small embryo, +surrounded by a hard pericarp which is cellular and oily; the oil is poisonous, causing +allergenic reactions in some humans. Flowering variable. +Germplasm — Several varieties have been selected, based on yield and nut size. Reported +from the South America and Middle America Centers of Diversity, cashew or cvs thereof +is reported to tolerate aluminum, drought, fire, insects, laterite, low pH, poor soil, sand, +shade, slope, and savanna. (2n = 42.)^^ +Distribution — Native to tropical America, from Mexico and West Indies to Brazil and +Peru. The cashew tree is pantropical, especially in coastal areas. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist to Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest +Life Zones, cashew is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 42 dm (mean of 32 +cases = 19.6), annual temperature of 21 to 28°C (mean of 31 cases = 25.2), and pH of +4.3 to 8.7 (mean of 21 cases = 64). Grows on sterile, very shallow, and impervious savanna +soils, on which few other trees or crops will grow, but is less tolerant of saline soil than +most coastal plants. Does not tolerate any frost. In Brazil, Johnson*^® summarizes ‘‘optimal +ecological conditions” : annual rainfall 7 to 20 dm, minimum temperature 17°C, maximum +temperature 38°C; average annual temperature 24 to 28°C, relative humidity 65 to 80%; +insolation 1,500 to 2,(XX) hr/year, wind velocity 2.25 km/hr, and dry season 2 to 5 months +long. It is recommended that cultivation be limited to nearly level areas of red-yellow podzols, +quartziferous sands, and red-yellow latosols.®^’^^® +Cultivation — Cashew germinates slowly and poorly; several nuts are usually planted to +the hole and thinned later. Propagation is generally by seeds, but may be vegetative from +21 +grafting, air-layering or inarching. Planting should be done in situ as cashew seedlings do +not transplant easily. Recommended spacing is 10 x 10 m, thinned to 20 x 20 m after +about 10 years, with maximum planting of 250 trees per ha. Once established, the field +needs little care. Intercropping may be done the first few years, with cotton, peanut, or +yams. Fruits are produced after 3 years, during which lower branches and suckers are +removed. Full production is attained by the 10th year, and trees continue to bear until about +30 years old. In dry areas, like Tanzania, flowering occurs in the dry season, and fruits +mature in 2 to 3 months. Flowers and fruits in various degrees of development are often +present in same panicle. +Harvesting — From flowering stage to ripe fruit requires about 3 months. Mature fruit +falls to the ground where the “ apple” dries away. In wet weather, they are gathered each +day and dried for 1 to 3 days. Mechanical means for shelling have been unsuccessful, so +hand labor is required. Cashews are usually roasted in the shell (to make it brittle and oil +less blistering), cracked, and nuts removed and vacuum packed. In India, part of the nuts +are harvested from wild trees by people who augment their meager income from other crops +grown on poor land. Kernels are extracted by people skilled in breaking open the shells +with wooden hammers without breaking the kernels. Nuts are separated from the fleshy +pedicel and receptacle, seed coat removed by hand, and nuts dried. Fresh green nuts from +Africa and the islands off southern India are shipped to processing plants in Western In­ +dia.70.278 +Yields and economics — Yields are said to range from 0 to 48 kg per tree per year, with +an average yield of 800 to 1,000 kg/ha. Heavy bearing trees often produce nuts considered +too small for the trade. Indian field trials showed that fertilizers could increase yields of 15- +year-old trees from less than 1 kg to tree to >4 and enabled 6-year-olds to average 5.7. +Regular applications of 250 g N, 150 g P2O5, and 150 g K2O per tree resulted in average +yield increases of 700 to 1600 +kg/ha.In Pernambuco, trees produced 1.5 to 24.0 kg each +per year, averaging 10.3 kg per tree.’^® At Pacajus (Ceara, Brazil) trees average 17.4 kg/year +with one tree bearing 48 kg/year. Major producers of cashew nuts are India, Tanzania, +Mozambique, and Kenya. In 1968 India planted over 224,000 ha in cashews to supply over +200 processing factories operating all year. In 1971 India produced 90,000 MT, the bulk +exported to the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. Export price at U.S. ports was $.33/kg. India imports +green nuts from the African countries and processes them for resale. Import price in 1971 +in India was 1730 rupees/MT. Cashawa Gum is obtained from the West Indies, Portuguese +East Africa, Tanzania, and Kenya. +Energy — A perennial species, the cashew has already, in the past, yielded alcohol from +the “ apple” , oil from the nut, and charcoal from the wood. Prunings from the tree and the +leaf biomass could also be used as energy sources. +Biotic factors — The cashew tree has few serious diseases or pests. The following are +reported disease-causing agents, none of which are considered of economic importance: +Aspergillus chevalieri, A. niger, Atelosaccharomyces moachoi, Balladynastrum anacardii, +Botryodiplodia theobromae, Cassytha filiformis, Cephaleuros mycoides, Ceratocystis sp., +Cercospora anacardii, Colletotrichum capsid, Cytonaema sp., Endomyces anacardii, Fu­ +sarium decemcellulare, Gloeosporium sp., Glomerella cingulata, Meliola anacardii, Ne- +matospora corylii, Parasaccharomyces giganteus, Pestaliopsis disseminata, Phyllosticta +anacardicola, P. mortoni, Phytophthora palmivora, Pythium spinosum, Schizotrichum in- +dicum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Trichomerium psidii, Trichothecium roseum, Valsa eugeniae. +Cuscuta chinensis attacks the tree. Of insects, Helopeltis spp. have been reported in Tanzania. +In Brazil, high populations of the nematodes Criconemoides, Scutellonema, and Xiphinema +are reported around cashew roots. Four insects are considered major pests: the white fly +(Aleurodicus cocois), a caterpillar {Anthistarcha binoculares), a red beetle (Crimissa sp.), +and a thrip (Selenothripes rubrocinctus). Flowers are visited by flies, ants, and other insects, +which may serve as pollinators. Artificial pollination is practiced in some areas. +22 Handbook of Nuts +APIOS AMERICANA Medik. (FABACEAE) — Groundnut +Uses — An attractively flowered plant, suggestive of Wisteria, Apios has been described +by the NAS^^* as a “ useful, sweet-scented ornamental” . I have enjoyed the tubers raw or +cooked. During the potato famine of 1845, Apios was introduced to Europe (but not for the +first time). Its cultivation there as a food crop was abandoned when potato growing again +became feasible. The plant was much esteemed by early American settlers, who ate them +boiled, fried, or roasted, calling them groundnuts, potato beans, or Indian potatoes. The +Pilgrims of New England survived their first few winters thanks to the groundnut. Blackmon"^ +presents several groundnut recipes. Erichsen-Brown^ recounts many of the Indian uses. +Menominee preserved the roots by boiling them in maple syrup.Even bread was made +from the root. Indians were said to eat the seeds like lentils. I would like to join the ranks +of Bill Blackmon,"^ Ed Croom, Janet Seabrook,^^’^°° and Noel Vietmeyer, and advocate +more studies of the economic potential of this interesting tuber, harvestable all year round. +I agree with Blackmon and Reynolds,"^® who, after studying Apios intensively stated: “ the +prognosis for developing A. americana as a food crop looks outstanding.” Advocates should +be aware of its weed potential, at least among uncultivated perennials, e.g., cranberries and +azaleas. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the tubers were used in folk remedies for +that cancerous condition known as “ Proud Flesh” in New England. Nuts were boiled and +made into a plaster: “ For to eat out the proud flesh they (Indians) take a kind of earth nut +boyled and stamped. +23 +Table 1 +CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (PERCENT) OF APIOS SPECIES +Apios americana Apios fortunei Apios priceana +Fresh Dry Fresh Dry Fresh Dry +basis basis basis basis basis basis +Water 81.00 68.60 61.88 +Fiber 5.20 27.37 1.20 3.82 4.95 +12.99 +Crude protein 3.12 16.42 4.19 13.34 2.62 6.87 +Nonprotein N 0.19 1.00 0.42 1.34 0.15 +0.39 +Protein N 0.31 1.63 0.25 0.80 0.27 +0.69 +Crude fat 0.67 3.53 0.19 0.61 0.82 +2.15 +Ash 5.21 1.30 4.14 +0.99 2.67 7.00 +Carbohydrate 9.02 47.47 24.52 78.09 27.06 70.97 +Starch +18.30 58.28 7.84 20.58 +Alcohol-insol. solids 15.08 39.55 +From Walter, W. M ., Croom, Jr., E. M ., Catignani, G. L., and Thresher, W. C., +Compositional study of Apios priceana tubers, J. Agric. Food Chem., (Jan./Feb.), 39, +1986. Copyright 1986, American Chemical Society. With permission. +Chemistry — Some describe the plant as having a milky juice. Seabrook^^^ suggests tha +the latex could be used commercially. According to the NAS, the only published analysis^"^- +records a remarkable protein content of 17.5%. Prompted by the inadequacy of analyses, +Duke arranged for new analytical investigations. Sanchez and Duke,^^^ based on these +analyses provided by Benito de Lumen, report (ZMB): 3.75 crude fat, 5.50% ash, 17.28% +crude protein, 28.84% neutral detergent fiber, 44.63% available carbohydrate, and 1.06 +nonprotein nitrogen. Per g they report 71.76 mg free amino acids, 1.26 mg nitrate, and +10.36 mg tannin. Subsequently, Walter et al.^^^ tabulated the differences in analyses between +fresh and dry tubers of A. americana, A. fortunei, and the endangered A. priceana (Table +1). Saponins have been reported in the genus, and the absence of tannins,refuted above. +Whether or not the plant exports its fixed nitrogen as ureides (allantoin, allantoic acid) as +is typical of many of the subtropical Phaseoleae or as the more soluble amides (asparagine +and glutamine) as in such temperate legumes as Lupinus, Pisum, Trifolium, and Vida remains +to be seen. Because it is suggested to have a cowpea-type Rhizobium, I predict it will be +a ureide exporter. Some calculations suggest it takes ca. 2 1/2 times as much water (remember +this is an aquaphyte) to export N as ureides. But the ureides are more economical with a +C:N ratio ca. 1:1; cf. 1:1 for asparagine, 5:2 for glutamine.^*^ Many legume sprouts are rich +in allantoin, widely regarded as a vulnerary medicinal compound. According to the Merck +Index, allantoin is a product of purine metabolism in animals, while it is prepared synthet­ +ically by the oxidation of uric acid with alkaline potassium permanganate. Medical and +veterinary use — “ Has been used topically in suppurating wounds, resistant ulcers, and to +stimulate growth of healthy tissue (Merck & Co.^‘°). Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary +puts it differently: +allantoin (ah-lan'to-in). Chemical name: 5-ureidohydantoin. A white crystallizable substance, +C4H6N4O3, the diureide of glyoxylic acid, found in allantoic fluid, fetal urine, and many +plants, and as a urinary excretion product of purine metabolism in most mammals but not +in man or the higher apes. It is produced synthetically by the oxidation of uric acid, and was +once used to encourage epithelial formation in wounds and ulcers and in osteomyelitis. It is +the active substance in maggot treatment, being secreted by the maggots as a product of +purine metabolism. +The direct role of allantoin in gout, if any, should be of great interest to those American +24 +Handbook of Nuts +males who have gout, especially if they ingest large quantities of legume sprouts or comfrey. +Apios produces a complex pterocarpan that appears structurally similar to glyceollin III, a +phytoalexin of the cultivated soybean. +Description — Twining, herbaceous vine, the stems short-pubescent to glabrate, 1 to 3 +m long, the rhizomes moniliform, with numerous fleshy tubers 1 to 8 cm thick. (Some +plants have fleshy roots only, others both fleshy roots and tubers, and others only tubers.) +In winter, the stems have a distinctive brown color and are locally flattened, enabling the +experienced collector to distinguish it from honeysuckle. Leaves once-pinnate, 1 to 2 dm +long; leaflets 5 to 7, ovate or ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, ca. 3 to 6 cm long, glabrous +to short-pubescent, obscurely stipellate; petioles mostly 2 to 7 cm long; stipules setaceous, +soon deciduous, 4 to 6 mm long. Inflorescence 5 to 15 cm long, nodes swollen, flowers 1 +to 2 per node, subtended by linear-subulate bracts 2 to 2.5 mm long; pedicels 1 to 4 mm +long with 2 linear-subulate bractlets near apex. Calyx sparsely short-pubescent, broadly +campanulate, tube ca. 3 mm long; petals nearly white to brownish purple, the standard +obovate or orbicular to obcordate, reflexed, obscurely auricled, 9 to 13 mm long, the wings +shorter, slightly auricled, the keel strongly incurved; stamens diadelphous, 1 and 1. Legume +linear, 5 to 15 cm long, 4 to 7 mm broad, 2 to 12-seeded, dehiscing by 2 spirally twisted +valves.Germination cryptocotylar.^^^’^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, groundnut, or +CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate acid and bog soils, partial shade, slopes, and waterlogging. +In 1982, the Plant Introduction Officer of the USDA suggested to me the possibility of +mounting a germplasm expedition to collect germplasm of this species, and its endangered +relative, Apios priceana Robinson, which produces a single large tuber instead of a string +of small tubers. NAS^^‘ speculates that a bush-like mutant may be found in nature. Seedlings +from Tennessee had 22 chromosomes, while plants from the northern part of the range were +triploid. Blackmon^® and Reynolds^”^^ discuss the variation in germplasm they have already +assembled. (2n = 22.) +Distribution — Widely distributed in eastern Canada and the U.S. (often around ancient +Indian campsites) (Florida, Texas, to Nova Scotia, Minnesota, and Colorado). Usually in +low damp bottomland or riparian woods and thickets. Seems to be associated with Alnus in +Rocky Gorge Reservoir, Maryland, as well as on the eastern shore of Maryland. Unfortu­ +nately, it can become a serious weed in cranberry plots. Uninfested bogs yielded nearly 14 +MT/ha cranberries, whereas herbicide plots yielded only ca. 670 to 2,300 kg/ha cranberry. +Perhaps the cranberry salesmen could find a market for the groundnuts, since both are Native +American food plants. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry through Cool Temperate Forest Life Zones, +groundnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.7 to 11.7 dm (mean of 2 cases += 10.7), annual temperature of 9.9 to 20.3°C (mean of 2 cases = 15.1), and pH of 4.5 +to 7.0 (mean of 2 cases = 5.8). Produces well in South Florida and Louisiana. I have +successfully germinated fall harvested seed, after soaking in hot water, room temperature +water, or frozen water, seeds that sunk and seeds that floated after soaking. These took 4 +months from harvest to germination, whereas their unsoaked counterparts had still not +germinated. Fall-harvested seed apparently exhibit no dormancy when planted in spring. +Cultivation — According to Vilmorin-Andrieux,^^^ since seed do not ripen in France, it +is multiplied by division in March and April, or in the latter part of summer. Divisions are +planted in good, light, well-drained soil 1 to 1.5 m apart in every direction. Reynolds^^^ +spaced his seedlings at 2 x 3 feet, tubers at 3 x 3 feet. Stems should be supported by +poles or stakes. Ground should be kept free of weeds by an occasional hoeing. Cultivation, +if overdone, might discourage the rhizomes and their tubers. Seedlings require at least 2 +years growth and a minimum photoperiod of 14 hr to induce flowering.Tuber dormancy +can be broken by chilling (several months at 35 to 40°F) or using ethylene. +25 +Harvesting — According to Vilmorin-Andrieux,^^^ the tubers are not large enough to be +gathered for use until the second or third year after planting. Blackman’s results in Louisiana +show this is not true where there is a long growing season. Once large enough, they can +be dug at any time of the year when the ground is not frozen. If carefully dug, strings of +four score tubers can be achieved. +Yields and economics — According to Elliott,Asa Gray once said that if advanced +civilization had started in North America instead of the Old World, the groundnut would +have been the first tuber to be developed and cultivated. Femald, Kinsey, and Rollins^^"^ +recount an anecdote indicating the economic value of the groundnuts to the pilgrims, “ The +great value to the colonists of this ready food is furtlier indicated by a reputed town law, +which in 1654 ordered that, if an Indian dug Groundnuts on English land, he was to be set +in stocks, and for a second offence, to be whipped.’’ Yields of 30 MT per acre were +erroneously reported (should have been 30 MT/ha) for cranberry bog weed populations. +Reynolds has attained the equivalent of ca 40 MT/ha from tubers in 1-year studies in +Louisiana.Some of his plants yielded more than 3 kg tubers. +Energy — Currently, this looks like a poor prospect for biomass production. However, +one should at least consider the possibility of developing the crop for marginal habitat +(swamp), the tubers as the main crop; the aerial biomass, as residue, might be used for +production of rubber, leaf protein, and power alcohol. The nodulated roots fix nitrogen. +Around Rocky Gorge Reservoir, in Maryland, the plant is most commonly intertwined in +N-fixing +Alnus species. Nodules were recorded on A. americana, but root-nodule location +relative to tuber formation was not specified. Root hairs are said to be lacking on secondary +roots of mature plants. Four rhizobial strains isolated from A. americana nodules were not +tested on the host, but since they produced nodules on cowpea plants, the species was +considered a member of the cowpea miscellany. The rhizobia are described as monotrichously +flagellated rods with cowpea-type, slow cultural growth.® H. Keyser-^^ suggests conserva­ +tively that Apios fixes > 1(X) kg N per ha. With no idea of the solubility of N fixed by the +groundnut, I recommend it be studied as a potential intercrop for marsh and aquatic plants, +especially rice and wild rice. It might also be considered for cultivation around the edges +of reservoirs used for irrigation, hence adding a small token of nitrogen to the irrigation +waters. Because of their tolerance to both acidity and waterlogging, they might be especially +advantageous around impoundments in strip-mine reclamations. Certainly the scorings by +Roth et al.^^*^ do not speak well for the energy potential of Apios. They give it a score of +14, in a system whereby only species receiving scores of 11 or less were regarded as potential +renewable energy sources. +Biotic Factors — Agriculture Handbook No. 165"^ lists the following diseases affecting +this species: Alternaria sp. (leaf spot), Cercospora tuberosa (leaf spot), Erysiphe polygoni +(powdery mildew), Microsphaera dijfusa, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, and Puccinia an- +dropogonis var. onobrychidis (rust). Reynolds^^^ reported powdery mildew, virus, possibly +anthracnose, root-knot nematodes, mealy bugs, spider mites, aphids, white flies, leaf-eating +caterpillars, cucumber beetles, grasshoppers, stink bugs, and fire ants. In some cases, the +fire ants are responsible for mealy bug infestations. Although most Erythrinae are bird +pollinated, Apios seems to be mostly bee pollinated. +26 Handbook of Nuts +ARECA CATECHU L. (ARECACEAE) — Betel-Nut Palm, Areca, Areca-Nut +Uses — Chief use of Betel-nut is as a breath sweetening masticatory, enjoyed for centuries +by about one-tenth the human population. Often slices of the nut, together with a little lime +and other ingredients (cardamom, camphor, cutch, clove, gambier, tobacco) according to +taste, are folded in a Betel Pepper leaf {Piper betel) and fastened with a clove. Sometimes +nuts are ground up with other materials and carried about in a pouch similar to a tobacco +pouch. Betel chewing is often considered as an after-dinner or social affair. Chewing colors +the saliva red and stains the teeth and gums black, eventually destroying the teeth, at least +according to one school of thought. Used in the tanning industry. An extraction of areca- +nuts makes black and red dyes. Dried nuts are said to sweeten the breath, strengthen the +gums, and improve the appetite and taste. Husks are the most important by-product, being +used for insulating wool, boards, and for manufacturing furfural. Innoculated with yeast +{Saccharomyces cervisiae), leaves used as fermentation stimulant in industrial alcohol pro­ +duction. Large, tough, sheathing parts of leaf-bases, used as substitute for cardboard or +strawboard for protecting packages; also used in the Philippines for hats, inner soles for +slippers, book-covers, and makes an excellent paper pulp.®^ +Folk medicine — The nut, in the form or ghees, powders, bolmes, or enemas, is said +to be a folk remedy for abdominal tumors,Reported to be astringent, carminative, deob­ +struent, dentrifrice, detergent, diaphoretic, diuretic, intoxicant, laxative, masticatory, miotic, +panacea, poison, preventative (malaria; mephitis), stomachic, taeniacide, taenifuge, tonic, +and vermifuge, betel nut is a folk remedy for ascariasis, beriberi, cancer (esophagus), cholera, +circulation problems, colic, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, dyspepsia, eruption, fistula, im­ +petigo, malaria, oliguria, rhagades, scabies, smallpox, sores, stomachache, syphilis, and +tumors (abdomen).^' Nuts are astringent, stimulant, and a powerful anthelmintic, especially +in veterinary practice. They are also considered digestive, emmenagogue, and are recom­ +mended as cardiac, nervine tonic, and as an astringent lotion for eyes, causing dilation of +the pupil; once used for glaucoma. Externally, applied to ulcers, bleeding gums, and urinary +discharges. Burned and powdered nuts used as a dentifrice in Europe. Once used as antidote +to abrin poisoning. Mixed with sugar and coriander, the nuts are given to induce labor in +Iran.‘^® Unripe fruits are cooling, laxative, and carminative.®^ +Chemistry — Nuts contain the alkaloids, arecoline, arecaine and arecolidine, isoguvacine, +guvacine, guvacoline; tannins (18%), fats (1417%), carbohydrates, and proteins, and some +Vitamin A. +27 +Toxicity — Per 100 g, the shoot is reported to contain 43 calories, 86.4 g H2O, 3.3 g +protein, 0.3 g fat, 9.0 g total carbohydrate, 1.0 g ash, 6 mg Ca, 89 mg P, and 2.0 mg Fe. +Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 394 calories, 12.3 g H2O, 6.0 g protein, +10.8 g fat, 69.4 g total carbohydrate, 15.9 g fiber, 1.5 g ash, 542 mg Ca, 63 mg P, 5.7 +mg Fe, 76 mg Na, 446 mg K, 0.17 mg thiamine, 0.69 mg riboflavin, 0.6 mg niacin, and +a trace of ascorbic acid. Classified by the FDA {Health Foods Business, June, 1978) as an +Herb of Undefined Safety. Excessive use of betel-nut causes loss of appetite, salivation, +and general degeneration of the body. Arecaine is poisonous and affects respiration and the +heart, increases peristalsis of intestines, and causes tetanic convulsions.^^’^^^ +Description — Tall, slender-stemmed palm, up to 30 m, 30 to 45 cm in diameter; stem +smooth, whitish, surmounted by crown of pinnate leaves; leaves 0.9 to 1.5 m long, dark- +green, with the upper pinnae confluent; lower portion of petiole expanded into a broad, +tough, sheath-like structure; inflorescence a spadix encased in a spathe, rachis much-branched +bearing male and female flowers; male flowers small and numerous, female ones much +larger; fruit a nut, varying in shape from flat to conical or spherical, 5 to 6.5 cm long, 3.7 +to 5 cm across, yellow, reddish-yellow to brilliant orange when ripe, size of a nutmeg and +with similar internal markings; pericarp hard and fibrous (husk), 65% of fruit mass; kernel +(areca-nut), 35% of fruit, grayish-brown, 2.5 to 3.7 cm in diameter, single per fruit, with +thin seed-coat and large ruminate endosperm. Flower and fruit seasons variable. +Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, the betel +palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, insects, laterite, poor soil, shade, and +slope. Varieties are selected on basis of size and shape of fruits and nuts, hardness and +astringency of nuts, and various properties of the nuts. Some varieties have large, flat, +almost bitter nuts, while others are conical or spherical and so bland in taste as to be called +“ sweet areca-nuts” (A. catechu var. deliciosa). Areca catechu forma communis — fruits +orange-red, globose-ovoid, or ovoid-ellipsoid, 4 to 5 cm long, 3 to 4 cm broad; seed +subglobose, with a more or less flattish base. Areca catechu var. silvática — fruit ovoid- +ellipsoid, rather ventricose, smaller than usual, 4 cm long, 3 cm or less broad; seed globose- +form from which the commonly cultivated palm has been derived. Areca catechu var. +batanensis — stems shorter and thicker than in forma communis, spadix denser, with shorter +floriderous branches. Areca catechu var. longicarpa — fruit narrowly ellipsoid, 5.5 to 7 +cm long, 2.5 cm broad; seed ovoid-conical, with blunt apex and flat base, slightly longer +than broad. Areca catechu var. semisilvatica, A. catechu var. alba and A. catechu var. +portoricensis are other varieties commonly cultivated. (2n = 32.).®^’^^* +Distribution — Areca-nut palm is considered native to Malaysia, where it is cultivated +extensively. It is also found throughout the East Indies and Philippines In India, Sri Lanka, +Assam, Burma, Madagascar, and East Africa, it is cultivated from the coastal areas up to +about 1,000 m. Plants are often spontaneous and occur in second-growth forests, but are +rarely found distant from cultivation. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet +Forest Life Zones, betel nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.9 dm +(mean of 13 cases = 20.6, annual temperature of 21.3 to 27.5°C (mean of 13 cases = +25.9°C), and pH of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 10 cases = 6.4). It requires a moist tropical climate, +thriving best at low altitudes, but will tolerate moderate elevations on mountains. Grows in +areas with rainfall of 50 cm, if soil is well-drained, but will grow in drier areas with only +5 dm annual rainfall, if suitably irrigated. Uniform distribution of rainfall is very important. +Grows in many types of soil varying in texture from laterite to loamy, provided soil has +thorough drainage, yet has the ability to retain optimum moisture required by the palm. +Light and sandy soils are unsuitable unless copiously irrigated and manured. Maximum +temperatures should not exceed 38°C, the optimum temperature for growth being a continuous +temperate range from 15.5 to 38°C. These palms are unable to withstand extreme temperatures +or a wide variance of daily temperature. +Handbook of Nuts +28 +Cultivation — Propagation is exclusively from seeds. In southern India and Malaysia, +fruits from carefully selected trees are gathered from 25- to 30-year-old trees. In Assam and +Bengal, no selection is made. In other areas the middle bunch of fruits is used for seed, +and in still other areas the last bunch of the season is preferred. In any case the ripe fruits +are gathered in November, dried in the sun for 1 to 2 days, or in shade for 3 to 7 days +before being sown. Drying the nuts does not increase germination of seeds. Well-tilled land +in a well-drained area in the garden or along an irrigation channel makes a good bed for +sowing seed. Seeds sown in rows 15 to 22 cm apart, or in groups of 20 to 50 seeds in pits, +or tied up in plantain leaves in rich moist soil to germinate; rarely planted in situ. However, +seeds may fall from tree and germinate in situ. Growth rate of seedling varies, and in about +3 months to 2 years after planting, seedlings are ready to transplant to nursery beds; sometimes +up to 4 years may be needed for this stage. Areca-nut is a shade-loving plant and is usually +grown as a mixed crop with fruit trees, such as mango, guava, jackfruit, orange, plantain, +or coconut. Usually a shade crop, such as bananas, is planted first, spaced about 2.7 m +apart in a north-south direction, and allowed to become well-established before transplanting +the areca-nut seedlings. Young seedlings are planted in nursery beds 30 x 30 cm, with 3 +rows per bed, about 1000 to 1500 trees per ha. After about 20 years, young seedlings are +planted between trees and between rows to replace older palms which have become unpro­ +ductive. After seedlings are planted, the bed is mulched with green or dry leaves, cattle +dung, wood ashes, or groundnut cake. Beds are made only in the rainy season and are kept +well-irrigated in the summer. Hoeing, weeding and interculture may be practiced. Pepper +vines {Piper betel) and cardamon may be trained to the trees or grown between them. +Farmyard manure, groundnut cake, ammonium sulfate, superphosphate and potassium sulfate +have been found to be beneficial. Also leaf manure and green manure may be used.^^* +Harvesting — Palms begin to flower about the 7th year after sowing seed, and reach full +production in about 10 to 15 years. With best conditions, trees may begin flowering the 4th +year. A plantation may take 30 years to reach maturity. Fruiting life of a tree is between +30 to 60 years after maturity, but trees may live for 60 to 100 years. Economical life span +in India is 45 to 70 years. In different regions there are well-defined seasons for flowering +and corresponding fruiting seasons. Because of the tall, slender nature of the palm, harvesting +the nuts requires skill and dexterity. Primitive methods are often employed. In India certain +classes of people who climb palms fast are employed. Sometimes bamboo poles with sickles +attached are used to cut the bunches. In Malaysia, trained monkeys are used. Leaves of the +palm (usually 4 to 7) begin to drop in December at intervals of 3 weeks, until June. +Inflorescences appear in the axils of such leaves, and although as many as five spadices +may appear, usually there are only 2 or 3 mature fruits. Spathes open soon after shedding +of leaves, and fruits ripen 8 to 11 months later. (Fruits take 6 to 8 months to ripen.) Nuts +harvested when bright red. Usually the shedding of a few nuts from a bunch is sufficient +indication to harvest the whole bunch. Harvesting season varies with 2 or 3 pickings made +in each season: Bombay and Sri Lanka, from August to March; Mysore, from August to +January; Bengal, from October to January. In India, areca-nuts are consumed raw or cured; +in other areas ripe nuts are masticated during the harvest season. Surplus nuts are stored in +pits in soil or water in earthenware jars for 5 to 7 months, and during the off-season are +taken out and chewed. Ripe nuts may also be dehusked, cut and dried, or just dried whole +in the sun for 6 to 7 weeks, or may be perfumed by smoke or benzoin. Nuts may be +processed, a costly and laborious operation on a commercial scale, to improve their color, +taste, palatability, and keeping quality. When properly cured and dried, nuts are dark-brown +with glossy finish. +Yields and economics — Each tree yields 2 to 3 bunches per year, containing 150 to +250 fruits; varieties with larger fruits may have 50 to 100 fruits per bunch. Fruits weigh +from 1.4 to 2.2 kg per 100 fruits. Yield per hectare with 1,000 trees is 440,000 to 750,000 +29 +fruits, or about 15 to 25 cwt of dried areca-nuts. Average yield of dried or cured nuts per +annum in Mysore is about 17.5 cwt/ha. India and Pakistan are the major producers of areca- +nuts, where most of the production is consumed domestically. It is also an item of internal +commerce in the Malay Archipelago and the Philippines. Nuts are exported in large quantities +from Java, Sumatra, Singapore, and other Malaysian regions to India. Sri Lanka exports to +India and the U.S. In 1969 to 1970 Pakistan grew about 1,000,000 acres of betel-nut, +producing about 26,500 long tons of nuts. Bavappa et al.^^ suggest that there are 184,000 +ha cultivated to Areca, with production of ca. 191,000 MT/year with a value of 2,500 million +rupees. Improved cultural practices are leading to higher yields of nuts. Higher-yielding and +more disease-resistant plants are being developed through breeding. +Energy — Debris from the plants could serve as a crude energy source. With 2000 to +3000 trees per hectare or more, there might be 8,000 to 21,000 leaves falling between June +and December.^® Fallen spathes and spadices might also be viewed as energy sources. Much +energy is consumed in the boiling and drying of this widely used narcotic. On top of this, +there might be 1,500 to 2,500 kg/ha dried nuts. In preparing the kernels for market, there +is much husk remaining as a by-product, containing nearly 50% cellulose. The wood of cull +trees may be used for firewood. +Biotic factors — The two most serious fungal diseases of this palm are Phytophthora +omnivorum var. arecae (Koleroga disease, a fruit rot) and Ganoderma lucidum (Foot rot). +Other fungal diseases include: Alternaría tenuis, Aspergillus niger arecae (causing a storage +disease), Botryodiplodia theobromae, Brachysporum arecae, Ceratostomella paradoza, Col­ +letotrichum catechu (seedling blight), Coniothyrium arecae, Dendryphium catechu, Exo- +sporium arecae, Gloeosporium catechu, Lenzites striata, Lichenophoma arecae, Melanconium +palmarum, Montagnellina catechu, Mycosphaerella sp., Nigrospora sphaerica, Phyllosticta +arecae, Polyporus ostreiformis, P. zonalis, Stagonospora arecae, Thielaviopsis paradoxa +(causes length-wise splitting of stem), Torula herbarum, Ustulina zonata. Areca-nut is also +attacked by the bacterium Xanthosomas vasculorum. In Thailand, the following nematodes +are known to attack arecanut: Rotylenchulus sp., Tylenchorhynchus dactylurus, Tylenchus +sp., and Xiphinema insigne. In Mysore and Malaysia, the Rhinoceros beetle {Orcytes rhi­ +noceros), leaf-eating caterpillar (Nephantis serinapa), borer {Arceerns fasciculatus), white +ants, and mites cause minor damage. +Handbook of Nuts +30 +ARENGA PINNATA (Wurmb) Merr. (ARECACEAE) — Sugar Palm, Kaong, Black Sugar +Palm +Syn.: Arenga saccharifera Labill. +- RDuHe^ +Uses — Sugar palm is grown for its sugar, starch, and fiber. Sap contains 20 to 40% +more sucrose than average sugarcane. Juice of the outer covering of fruit is highly corrosive +and may cause pain and skin inflammation. Pith of the stem is source of sago starch. Sap +may be made into a refreshing fresh drink, or fermented into palm wine, upon distillation +yielding Arrack. Alcohol and vinegar may also be made from the sap. Terminal bud or +“ cabbage” is eaten in salads, raw or cooked. Etiolated leaves, petioles, and pith of young +stems eaten in soups or fried, or used as a pickled preserve. Half-ripe fruits are pruned to +remove irritating crystals in pericarp; seeds washed and seedcoat removed; endosperm is +soaked in lime water for several days and finally boiled in sugary or spicy solutions and +eaten as sweetmeats. Young leaf-sheaths produce a valuable fiber used in industrial work. +Leaves are used to thatch roofs and are quite durable; leaflets are used for rough brooms +and are sometimes woven into baskets. “ Wood” is used for water p i p e s .J u i c e of outer +fleshy covering of fruit is used as a fish poison. +Folk medicine — Reported to be intoxicant and piscicide.^^ Sap considered lactogenic +in Malaysia. Javanese use a root decoction for kidney stones. Fermented sap taken for +tuberculosis in the Philippines and Indonesia; for sprue, dysentery, constipation, and he­ +morrhoids in Java. The felt-like tomentum at the leaf-base is used as a styptic.^ Roots used +to make a medicine for stone in the bladder in Java. The fresh, sweet toddy used for chronic +31 +constipation, phthisis, and dysentery; lactagogue. Applied to wounds as a hemostatic. +Diuretic and antithermic; fresh unfermented sap is a purgative and a remedy for sprue in +Indonesia. Juice of ripe fruit is poisonous. Roots are a treatment against bronchitis and +gravel. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the shoot is reported to contain 19 calories, 94.7 g H2O, 0.1 +g protein, 0.2 g fat, 4.9 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 g fiber, 0.1 g ash, 21 mg Ca, 3 mg P, +00.5 mg Fe, 2 mg Na, 7 mg K, 0.01 mg riboflavin, and 0.1 mg niacin.*^ +Description — Tall, stout palm, 8 to 15 m tall, bole solitary, straight, 40 to 50 cm in +diameter; old leaf-bases covering trunk with mat of tough, black fibers and long spines; +leaves ascending, pinnate, up to 9.1 m long, 3.1 m wide, with 100 or more pairs of linear +leaflets, leaflets whitish or scurfy beneath, dark-green above, 1 to 1.5 m long, 6 to 8 cm +(or more) wide, lobed or jagged at apex, auricled at base; petioles 1.5 to 2 m long, very +stout, base covered with black fibers and weak spines; plants monoecious, bearing very +large pendulous interfoliar inflorescences arising from leaf axils; female inflorescence usually +preceding male; male and female inflorescence, which eventually become 1 to 3.3 m long, +at first ensheathed in bud by 5 to 7 lanceolate oblong, imbricated, caducous bracts; inflo­ +rescence emerging from spathes in 6 to 9 weeks; peduncle large; flowers opening first at +base of each branch and successively toward apex; flowers numerous, sessile, either male +or female; female flowers usually solitary, male solitary or paired, rarely in threes, occurring +in separate inflorescences; in bisexual flowers, stamens usually abortive; male flowers scent­ +less, with 3 green imbricated, persistent sepals, one-fourth length of petals, apex broadly +acute, thin-margined; petals 3 to 4, navicular, valvate, 2.5 cm long, red-brown or red-purple +on outside, yellow on inside; stamens yellow, numerous, with elongated apiculate anthers, +borne on short filaments; no rudimentary ovary; female flowers scentless, 3 unequal green +imbricated orbicular sepals, one-third length of petals, persistent; petals coriaceous, 1.5 to +2.5 cm long, light-green,ovate, or triangular, valvate, persistent with sepals as cupule at +base of fruit; staminodes absent, or if present, sometimes producing nectar; fruit obovoid +to subglobose, smooth, 5 to 6 cm in diameter, with depressed trigonous upper surface; +exocarp yellow or yellow-brown, coriaceous; mesocarp fleshy, whitish, gelatinous, very +acid due to stinging crystals; endocarp black, smooth, thin, stony; seeds 2 to 3 per fruit, +dull-metallic gray-brown, trigonous, oblong, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, 2 to 2.5 cm wide, with +copious endosperm. Flowers and fruits year-round. +Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia and Hindustani Centers of Di­ +versity, sugar palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, fungus, high +pH, insects, poor soil, shade, and slope.Several forms of the sugar palm exist in Malaya, +varying mainly in how long is required for plants to begin flowering.(2 n = 26,32.) +Distribution — Native from eastern India and Ceylon, through Bangladesh, Burma, +Thailand, southern China, Hainan, Malay Peninsula to New Guinea and Guam. Extensively +cultivated in India. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest +Life Zones, sugar palm is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 40 dm (mean of +8 cases = 19.1), annual temperature of 19 to 2TC (mean of 8 cases = 24.5), and pH of +5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 5 cases = 6.4).®^ More or less a forest tree, but not restricted to jungles; +it can be grown on very poor rocky hillsides and in waste places. It flourishes best in humid +tropics in a rich moist soil, from sea-level to elevations of 1,200 m, being grown at higher +elevations than coconut. It is little subject to drought damage, typhoons, insect pests, or +fungal diseases. Trees are hardy, self-sustaining, growing readily in well-drained soil of +dark cool valleys, along banks of mountain streams, along forest margins and on partially +open hillsides. It develops more slowly in flat, exposed, or sunny habitats. +Cultivation — In forests of Indo-Malaysia, ripe fruits are distributed by various fruit +bats, civet cats, and wild swine. Trees are only in semi-cultivation, mainly since trees require +32 Handbook of Nuts +many years to begin to be useful. When propagated, seed are used, but it has never been +scientifically cultivated. Growing it in plantations for its fiber is too costly. +Harvesting — Various products may be harvested from the sugar palm. Trees reach +maturity (flowering stage) in 6 to 12 years and continue to flower for about 15 years before +replanting. Flowering is quite irregular. From flowering to ripe fruit takes about 2 years, +so the harvest period for the fruit extends over the entire year. Most important industrial +product is the black, horsehair-like tough fiber, called gomuta, yunot, or cabo negro, pro­ +duced at base of petioles in large quantities. It is used in manufacture of a very durable rope +used in fresh-and salt-water and for thatching houses; known to last 100 years in the Phil­ +ippines. Fiber also widely used for filters and for caulking ships. Cost of fiber is high, +depending on grade and length of fiber, but is in demand in Europe for industrial purposes. +Stiffer fibers are used in Philippines to make floor and hair brushes, and brushes for grooming +horses. Thatch-like raincoats are sometimes made from it. Associated with the fibers at basal +parts of petiole is a soft, dry, light, punky substance, called barok, varying in color from +white to dark shades, used in caulking boats and as a tinder, made by soaking in juice of +banana or lye made from ashes of Vitex negundo and then dried; 60 to 75 tons of this +exported annually from Java to Singapore. Palms commonly tapped for the sweet sap used +for producing sugar, vinegar, wine, or alcohol. Trees for sugar production are selected and +the young inflorescences beaten with a stick or wooden mallet for a short time each day for +2 to 3 weeks, thus producing wound tissue and stimulating the flow of sap to the injured +area. Starch in the trunks is converted into sugar and moves into the inflorescence when it +begins to develop. Thus by wounding young inflorescences, the flow of sugar to the wounded +tissue can be regulated. The stalk is then cut off at base of the inflorescence and the exuding +sap collected. A thin slice is removed from the wounded end of the stalk once or twice a +day during sap flow. Flow generally diminishes from 10 to 12 to 2 €/day after 2 1/2 months; +some plants yield about 2.8 €/day for about 2 years. Fresh sap is clear with pleasant taste +and makes a refreshing drink. Kept awhile, it becomes turbid and acid, and upon fermen­ +tation, acquires an intoxicating quality. Flavored with bark of other trees, large quantities +of the liquor are consumed. Sap is allowed to ferment, producing “ tuba” , a palm wine, a +popular drink in Philippines; it is supposed to have curative properties. Fermentation begins +in the bamboo’s tubes in which sap is collected and is usually well-advanced when the +product is gathered. Much is converted into a good quality vinegar; alcohol is also distilled +from the “ tuba” . Sugar is made by boiling the sweet, unfermented sap, using a new bamboo +joint for the sap each day. To prevent fermentation in the tube, a little crushed ginger or +crushed chili-pepper fruit is added to the bamboo joint. Sometimes in Java, bamboo joints +are smoked first to reduce fermentation. Sugar is manufactured by boiling thickened juice +in an open kettle until the liquid solidifies when dropped on cold surface. Sugar in the +Philippines is brown and enters into local commerce in very limited quantities. Yield of +sugar is about 20 tons/ha, with 150 to 200 trees/ha. In Java and elsewhere, old trees no +longer productive of sugar are felled and cut up into short sections, or the pith is scooped +out of trunks cut lengthwise. Fibrous pith is pulverized and washed to remove fibrous material +and other impurities. Starch particles in suspension are drawn off and sago starch removed +and dried in sun. Starch is light gray-white. A type of tapioca may be prepared from this +starch by dropping wet pellets of it on hot plates. Debris, after starch is removed, is boiled +and used for hog feed. In Luzon, starch is obtained only from male or sterile trees. Yield +of sago meal is about 67.5 kg per tree. Yields of starch vary greatly, with an average yield +of 50 to 75 kg per tree.^^^ +Yields and economics — Specific yields are stated above for each product. Products of +this palm are widely used in areas where it grows, but only the fibers are in international +commerce. Sugar and starch, and their by-products are consumed locally, and in very large +quantities. +33 +Energy — In Palms as Energy Sources, Duke^' reports that a single sugar palm can yield +2.8 € (sugar content 5 to 8%) toddy per day over a period of about two months. Sugar +yields of 20 MT per ha are suggested, all of which could be converted to renewable alcohol. +Once flowering, male trees go on producing tappable spadices for 2 to 3 years, until the +lowest leaf axil is utilized and the tree is exhausted.^® A single tree, upon felling, can yield +up to 75 kg “ sago starch” (true sago may yield 5 times as much). Trees that have been +tapped for sugar yield little or no sago). Energy planners cannot then add the sugar and +starch, but plan for one or the other. The black reticulate leaf-sheaths have hair-like fibers +that are used for tinder. +Biotic factors — Flowers are presumably wild-pollinated. Sugar palm is virtually in­ +sect-, pest-, and disease-free, one fungus attacking the palm being Ganoderma pseudofer- +reum. In the East Indies, leaves are damaged by the rhinoceros beetle {Orcytes rhinoceros), +and dead palms are reported to harbor these beetles, which cause serious damage to coconut +palms. +34 Handbook of Nuts +Breadfruit, Breadnut, Pana +ARTOCARPUS ALTILIS (Parkins.) Fosb. (MORACEAE) +Syn.: Artocarpus communis Forst. +Uses — Cultivated extensively for its fruits and seeds, breadfruit is used as a staple food +with Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians. When fruit is not fully ripe, being very +starchy, it is peeled, cut into sections, and baked or boiled, and seasoned with salt, pepper, +and butter. When fully ripe, the meat is soft and can be baked like sweet potato. Green +fruits are roasted, ground into a meal, and used to make breads. Breadfruit can also be used +in salads, made into soup, and, when ripe, made into a pulp (coconut milk and sugar being +added) and baked as a pudding. Seeds are eaten roasted or boiled. Bark cloth is made from +the bark. Leaves furnish fodder for livestock. Wood is used locally for house-building. +Latex from the trunk is used in native medicines, as bird lime and to caulk canoes. +Folk medicine — Fruits and leaves used as a cataplasm for tumors in Brazil.Powder +of roasted leaves applied for enlarged spleen; ashes of the leaves applied in herpes^^ (Am- +boina). Reported to be anodyne, laxative, and vermifuge, breadfruit is a folk remedy for +backache, blood disorders, boils, bums, diabetes, diarrhea, dysentery, eye ailments, fever, +fracture, gout, headache, hypertension, oliguria, rheumatism, sores, stomach-ache, swelling, +testicles, worms, and wounds.West Indians have great faith in the leaf decoction for high +blood pressure. Colombians cook the fmit with sugar for colic. Virgin Islanders take the +plant for coronary ailments, Jamaicans dress liver spots with the latex, Costa Ricans apply +it to w o u n d s .C h in e s e use the seeds to aid parturition and to treat typhoid and other +fevers. Indonesians use the bark in parturition, poulticing the leaves on splenomegaly. Heated +flowers, after cooling, are applied to the gums for toothache, fmits are used for cough, root- +bark for diarrhea and dysentery, seeds as an aphrodisiac. Philippinos use the bark decoction +for stomach-ache. New Guineans use the latex for dysentery. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature fmit is reported to contain 103 calories, 70.8 g H2O, +35 +1.7 g protein, 0.3 g fat, 26.2 g total carbohydrate, 1.2 g fiber, 1.0 g ash, 33 mg Ca, 32 +mg P, 1.2 mg Fe, 15 mg Na, 439 mg K, 24 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.22 mg thiamine, +0.03 mg riboflavin, 0.9 mg niacin, and 29 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, the leaf is reported +to contain 75 calories, 75.5 g H2O, 5.0 g protein, 2.0 g total carbohydrate, 2.0 g ash, 2.0 +mg Ca, 170 mg P, 60 mg Fe, 17.5 mg Na, 0.10 mg thiamine, and 70 mg ascorbic acid. +Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 434 calories, 20.2 g H2O, 15.1 g protein, +29.0 g fat, 34.0 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 g fiber, 1.7 g ash, 66 mg Ca, 320 mg P, 6.7 mg +Fe, 41 mg Na, 380 mg K, 280 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.88 mg thiamine, 0.55 mg +riboflavin, 0.8 mg niacin, and 12 mg ascorbic acid. Quijano and Arango^^^ report wetter +seeds (56.3% moisture) with (ZMB): 3 to 4 g ash, 12.8 g fat, 16 g soluble carbohydrates, +20 g total protein, and 3.9 g fiber. Of the protein (20%), 6.4 g was nonglobular protein, +13.5 g globular (1.8 g albumins, 3.7 globulins, 3.3 prolamins, and 4.6 g glutelins). The +amino acids of the seeds contain 13.04 g/100 g leucine, 12.10 isoleucine, 5.28 g phenyl­ +alanine, 15.90 g methionine, 7.24 g tyrosine, 3.62 g proline, 7.68 g alanine, 4.93 g glutamic +acid, 3.91 g threonine, 10.43 g serine, 4.78 g glycine, 3.33 g arginine, 4.56 g histidine, +and 3.12 g cystine per 100 g protein. Fruits contain papayotin and artocarpin.^®^ Leaves +contain quercetin and camphorol.^^"^ Some HCN is reported in the leaves, stem, and root, +cerotic acid in the latex. +Description — Handsome tree, 12 to 20 m tall; leaves large, ovate, leathery, rough, +glossy, most often lobate or incised, 30 to 90 cm long, 30 to 40 cm broad, dark-green; +flowers minute, male and female flowers in separate catkins on the same tree, in axils of +newly formed leaves; male inflorescences club-shaped, 15 to 30 cm long, dropping to the +ground in a few days; female inflorescences in globose heads about 5 cm in diameter, +developing into seedless fruits; some varieties of breadfruit have seeds in profusion; fruit +(syncarp) ovoid, spherical, or pear-shaped, 10 to 15 cm long, 10 to 15 cm in diameter, +weighing 1 to 4 kg, with white sticky latex, rind yellowish-green or brown, divided into a +series of low projections, bearing short spines in some varieties; pulp white or yellowish; +in breadnut, rind covered with fleshy spines, with brownish seeds 2.5 cm or more in length +and about 2.5 cm in diameter. Flowers and fruits at nearly all stages on the tree at the same +time, almost throughout the year.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, breadfruit, +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, heat, laterite, sodium or salt, slope, +and virus.Many cvs have developed wherever breadfruit has been long grown. Seeded +CVS are of little economic value but are eaten by natives; the seeds, when roasted, taste like +chestnuts. Most cvs are seedless. In Ponape, over 50 cvs are known; in Tahiti, about 30; +and in the South Pacific area, 165.^^* (2n = 56.) +Distribution — Probably originated in Indonesia and perhaps in New Guinea, where +large, spontaneous stands occur. Breadfruit is cultivated throughout the islands of the South +Seas. It has been introduced into many tropical areas of the world, including India, West +Indies, Mauritius, and southern Florida. +Ecology — Ranging fromWarm Temperate Dry (without frost) through Tropical Dry to +Wet Forest Life Zones, breadfruit is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 40 dm +(mean of 19 cases = 23.0), annual temperature of 17 to 29°C (mean of 19 cases = 24.1), +and pH of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 14 cases = 6.2). Breadfruit thrives only in humid tropics, +where the temperature varies from 16 to 38°C with a humidity of 70 to 80%, and a well- +distributed annual rainfall of 250 to 275 cm. Climatic requirements vary according to cv. +In Indonesia, some cvs are adapted to moist climates; others endure 6 months of dry weather. +It is usually intolerant of climatic extremes in inland regions or high elevations, but grows +on high islands (up to 700 m in New Guinea) and on atolls throughout the Pacific. It does +not tolerate shade, and irrigation has been unsuccessful. It thrives on alluvial and coastal +soils, and can be grown and produced on coral soils of atolls. Some cvs (“ Maitarika” ) +36 Handbook of Nuts +grown on atolls such as Gilbert Islands are said to tolerate salinity. Wind easily breaks the +branches and may cause many flowers and young fruits to fall.^^’^^® +Cultivation — Seeded cvs are propagated from seed; however, seeds lose their viability +soon after fruit falls. For seedless varieties, if roots are bruised near soil surface, plants send +up root-suckers, which can be removed and planted in a permanent site. Root-cuttings 20 +to 25 cm long and 12 to 60 mm in diameter may be laid horizontally in a 12-mm-deep +trench and watered daily. Remove and plant sprouts when 20 to 25 cm tall in rainy season. +Natural suckers can be air-layered for root initiation planted in a nursery for 2 to 3 months, +then transplanted to permanent site. At all times, trees should be spaced about 12 m each +way, or about 100 trees per hectare. Trees should be watered for first and second years, +given shallow intercultures, and generally no manuring. Some intercropping is practiced. +Harvesting — Trees start bearing in 5 to 6 years, when vegetatively propagated, 8 to 10 +years from seed. Under good soil and climatic conditions they will continue to produce well +for 50 years. Time of harvest differs in various localities: in Caroline Islands, May to +September; Gilbert Islands, May to July; Society Islands, November to April and July to +August. For culinary purposes, harvest when still hard. Harvesting is done with a long pole, +having a hooked knife and basket at the end so fruits do not fall to ground. Fruits ripen in +4 to 6 days.^^^ +Yields and economics — Adult trees yield 50 to 150 fruits, each producing 23 to 45 kg. +An 8-year-old tree can bear 800 fruits over the three seasons of a year.*^^ A fruit may weigh +1 to 3 kg. Breadfruits are gathered and sold locally where the trees are grown. They rarely +enter international trade. +Energy — If an adult tree bears 100 2-kg fruits, and if the fruits contain 70% water, that +is still 60 kg dry matter (DM) per tree per year. If one could crowd 100 such productive +trees into a hectare that indicates 6 MT DM in fruits alone, a reasonable renewable biomass +production. There is a sizable annual accumulation of leaves and limbs as well. +Biotic factors — Hand-pollinated fruits are twice the size of normally developing fruits. +The following fungi are known to attack breadfruit: Capnodium sp., Cercospora artocarpi, +Colletotrichum artocarpi, Cephaleuros virescens, Corticium salmonicolor, Gloeosporium +artocarpi, G. mangiferae, Orbilia epipora, Pestalotiopis versicolor, Phytophthora palmi- +vora, Phyllosticta artocarpi, P. artocarpicola, Mycosphaerella artocarpi, Rhizopus arto­ +carpi, Sclerotium rolfsii, Uredo artocarpi, Zygosporium oscheoides. Nematodes infesting +the tree are Boledorus sp., Helicotylenchus concavus, H. cavenessi, H. dihystera, H. mi- +croc ephalus, H. pseudorobustus, Heterodera marioni, Meloidogyne incognita acrita, Ro- +tylenchulus reniformis, Scutellonema calthricaudatum, Tylenchorhynchus triglyphus, and +Xiphinema ifacola}^^'^^^ +37 +ARTOCARPUS HETEROPHYLLUS Lam. (MORACEAE) — Jackfruit +Syn.: Artocarpus integra (Thunb.) M err., Artocarpus integrifolia L.f. +Uses — Few, if any, tropical fruits can excel the jackfruit in size and usefulness. Cultivated +for its multiple fruit, the pulp may be cooked or fried before ripening, or eaten raw when +ripe. Fruits I sampled in Brazil were quite adequate, right off the tree. Pulp is sometimes +boiled with milk, or made into preserves or curries. Leaves and bark contain a white latex. +Leaves are fed to sheep, goats, and cattle as fodder, especially in the dry season. Flower +clusters are eaten in Java with syrup and agar-agar or coconut milk. Young fruits may be +eaten in soups. When properly fermented, pulp produces a vinegar. Seeds are mealy and +are tasty when boiled or roasted. Half-ripe fruits are fed to pigs and used for fattening cattle +and sheep. Wood is bright yellow when fresh, darkening on exposure, used for furniture, +cabinet work, house-building, doors, window frames, and cart work. The wood chips are +distilled in Burma and Sri Lanka to produce the yellow dye used for Buddhist robes. Trees +are usually cut for lumber when upwards of 30 years old; wood takes a high polish and is +ornamental. Heartwood contains a brilliant yellow dye, similar to fustic. Cyanomaclurin is +also present, producing an olive-yellow with chromium, dull yellow with aluminum, and a +brighter yellow with tin mordant. Green and red dyes may also be prepared. Sawdust and +shavings of wood, when boiled in water, yield a yellow dye used for dying silk. Milky juice +is used in some countries as a bird-lime. Bark yields a +fiber.Shedding nearly 10 MT +leaves a year and bearing fruits weighing up to 11 kg each, this species deserves consideration +as a shade tree for cardamoms. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell, the plant is used in folk remedies for tumors. +Reported to be astringent, demulcent, laxative, refrigerant, and tonic, jackfruit is a folk +remedy for alcoholism, carbuncles, caries, leprosy, puerperium, smallpox, sores, sterility, +stomach problems, toothache, and tumors.^' Burmese, Chinese, and Filipinos use the sap +to treat abscesses and ulcers, and the bark to poultice on such afflictions. Burmese also use +the roots for diarrhea and fever. Indochinese use the wood as a sedative in convulsion, the +boiled leaves as a lactagogue, the sap for syphilis and worms. Filipinos use the ashes of the +leaves to treat ulcers and wounds.Cambodians used the wood to calm the nerves. Munda +of India use the leaves for vomiting. Both Ayurvedics and Yunani consider the fruit and +seeds aphrodisiac. Ayurvedics use the ripe fruit for biliousness, leprosy, and ulcers. India +uses the roots for hydrocoele.*^^ +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the leaves contain (ZMB) 18.5 g protein, 5.0 g fat, 66.3 g total +carbohydrate, 26.2 g fiber, 10.2 g ash, 2,000 mg Ca, and 110 mg P. Per 100 g, the fruits +(ZMB) contain 347 calories, 6.3 g protein, 1.1 g fat, 87.5 g total carbohydrate, 3.3 g fiber, +5.2 g ash, 100 mg Ca, 140 mg P, 2.2 mg Fe, 7.4 mg Na, 1,502 mg K, 867 ug beta-carotene +equivalent, 0.33 mg thiamine, 0.41 mg riboflavin, 2.58 mg niacin, and 33 mg ascorbic +acid. Per 1(X) g, the seeds contain 51.6 g H2O, 6.6 g protein, 0.4 g fat, 38.4 g carbohydrate, +1.5 g fiber, 1.5 g ash, 0.05% Ca, 0.13% P, and 1.2 mg Fe.^ The latex consists of 65.9 to +76.0% moisture and water solubles and 2.3 to 2.9% caoutchouc. The coagulum contains 6 +to 10% caoutchouc, 82.6 to 86.4% resins, and 3.9 to 8.1% insolubles. Dried latex contains +the steroketone artostenone C30H50O, which has been converted to artosterone, a compound +with highly androgenic properties. Seeds, though eaten, contain the hemagglutinin, con- +cavalin A. Hager’s Handbook gives structures for six flavones isolated therefrom: artacar- +panone, artocarpetin, artocarpin, cyanomaclurin, cycloartocarpin, and morin (Ci5Hio07).*®^ +The wood contains a yellow pigment, morin, and cyanomaclurin; the bark has tannin, the +latex cerotic acid.^"^^ +Description — Low or medium-sized evergreen tree, 10 to 25 m high, without buttresses, +with dense, rather regular crown. Branchlets terete, with scattered, retrose, crisped hairs, +becoming glabrous. Leaves alternate, shortly stalked, oblong or obovate, with cuneate or +38 Handbook of Nuts +obtuse base, and obtuse or shortly acuminate apex, entire (lobed only on very young plants), +coriaceous, rough, glabrescent, shining dark-green above, pale-green beneath, 10 to 20 cm +long, 5 to 10 cm wide, with 5 to 8 pairs of lateral veins, petiole 2 to 4 cm long. Stipules +ovate-triangular, acute, hairy on the back, glabrous on the inner side, pale, 1 to 2 cm long, +on flowering branches much larger, up to 5 cm. Inflorescences peduncled, solitary in the +leaf-axils of short, thick branchlets which are placed on the trunk or on the main branches, +unisexual, 4 to 15 cm long; the male ones near the apex, fascicled in the higher axils, +oblong-clavate, rounded at both ends; the female ones in the lower axils, solitary or in pairs +on longer and thicker peduncles. Flowers very numerous, small, the male ones with a two- +lobed perianth and one stamen; the female ones cohering at the base, tubular, style obliquely +inserted, stigma clavate. Spurious fruits very large, oblong, glabrous, with short, 3 to 6 +angular, conical acute spines. +Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, jackfruit, or cvs thereof, +is reported to tolerate aluminum, latentes, limestone, low pH, and shade.Varieties such +as “ Soft” or “ Hard” , are selected mainly according to the thickness of the rind. +Distribution — Native to the Indian Archipelago, jackfruit is now widely cultivated +throughout the Old and New World tropics, being known in India, Burma, Bangladesh, Sri +Lanka, Java, and in South America from the Guianas as far south as Rio de Janeiro, in +Brazil, West Indies, and southern Florida. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Wet +Forest Life Zones, jackfruit is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 42 dm (mean +of 14 cases = 22.7), annual temperature of 19 to 29°C (mean of 14 cases = 24.8), and +pH of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 11 cases = 6.0).^^ As a tropical tree, jackfruit grows well in +most soils, but not in moist low places. Cultivated below 1,000 m altitudes, it grows best +in deep well-drained soil, but will grow slowly and not so tall in shallow limestone soil. +Sensitive to frost in its early stages, it cannot tolerate drought or “ wet feet” .^^^ +Cultivation — Propagated by seeds (viable only 2 to 4 weeks), budding after the modified +Forkert method, inarching, air-layering, or grafting. Seeds retain viability for about 30 days +at room temperature; however, soaking them in water for 24 hr improves their longevity. +Budding with eyes of nonpetioled budwood on stocks from 8 to 11 months old gives best +results. The best stock is Artocarpus champeden, but A. rigida Bl. can also be used. Stock +should be slightly shaded. For grafting-tape, dry bark-fibers of Musa textilis are used. +Budding may be performed throughout the year, provided stocks are old enough. Can be +propagated through root shoots. Trees should be spaced 12 to 14 m apart each way. Cattle +manure is helpful. +Harvesting — Trees start bearing fruit when 4 to 14 years old; once established, they +continue to bear for several decades. Ripe fruits, available almost throughout the year, are +much relished. About 8 months is required from time the flowers begin to expand until fruit +matures. +Yields and economics — A tree may bear 150 to 250 fruits per year and fruits may weigh +10 to 40 kg. Two hundred 20-kg fruits a tree indicate an incredible 4 tons per tree per year. +If 50 trees could bear at this rate, that would be 200 tons fruit per ha. But 75% of this is +water. Cultivation in Bangladesh in 1969 to 1970 amounted to 17,760 ha, because of greater +demand, producing 212,635 tons of fruit. Because of the fruit, it is marketed locally. +Energy — Grown as a shade tree for cardamom, jackfruit contributed annually 9,375 +kg/ha leaf mulch. +Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack jackfruit: Ascochyta sp., +Botryodiplodia theohromae, Capnodium sp., Cephaleuros sp., Circinotrichum sp., Corti- +cium salmonicolor (pink disease), Diplodia artocarpi, Ganoderma applanatum, Gloeos- +porium artocarpi, G. caressae, Kernia furcotricha, Marasmius scande ns, Marssonia indica, +Meliola artocarpi, Pestalotia elasticola, Phomopsis artocarpi, Phyllosticta artocarpi, P. +39 +artocarpina, Phytophthora palmivora, Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizopus artocarpi, R. stolonifer, +Rosellinia bunodes, Septoria artocarpi, Setella coracina, Torula herbarum, Uredo artocarpi. +Trees are also parasitized by Dendrophthoe falcata and Viscum album. Among the nematodes +known to infest jackfruit trees are Aphelechus avenae, Cr icone ma taylori, Criconemoides +birchfieldi, Helicotylenchus dihystera, Heterodera marioni, Hoplolaimus seinhorsti, Lep- +tonema thornei, Meloidogyne sp., Oostenbrinkella oostenbrinki, Peltamigratus sp., Praty- +lenchus zeae, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Trichodorus sp., Tylenchorhynchus acutus, T. mar­ +tini, T. triglyphus, Xiphinema americanum, X. pratense, and X. setariae.^'^^'^^ +40 Handbook of Nuts +BALANITES AEGYPTIACA (L.) Delile (SIMARUBACEAE) — Desert Date, Soapberry +Tree, Jericho Balsam +Uses — Monks of Jericho regarded Balanites as the balm of the Biblical verse. An oily +gum made from the fruit is sold in tin cases to travelers as the balm of Gilead. Both Balanites +and Pistacia are common in old Palestine, and both are called balm. A desert-loving plant, +Balanites is also revered by the Mohammedans in western India.The wood is used for +axes, cudgels, Mohammedan writing boards, mortars and pestles, walking sticks, and wooden +bowls. Since it gives little smoke, it is a favorite firewood for burning indoors. Spiny +branches are used to pen up animals. The bark yields a strong fiber. The fruit is fermented +to make an intoxicating beverage. In West Africa and Chad, the seed is used for making +breadstuffs and soups, while the leaf is used as a vegetable, the pericarp is crushed and +eaten.Flowers are eaten in soups in West Africa. The comestible oil, which constitutes +40% of the fruit, is used to make soap. African Arabs use the fruit as a detergent, the bark +to poison fish. The active principle, probably a saponin, is lethal to cercarla, fish, miracidia, +mollusks,^^ and tadpoles. One fruit weighing 25 g has enough active ingredient to kill the +bilharzial mollusks in 30 € water.^^^ The Douay Bible of 1609 renders Jeremiah 8:22 to +read, “ Is there no rosin in Gilead?“ , resulting in this edition being termed the Rosin Bible. +The Bishop’s Bible of 1568 reads, “ Is there no tryacle in Gilead?“ , and is termed the +Treacle Bible. The tree is recommended for arid zones by UNESCO because of its food +41 +value, fixed oil, and protein in the kernel (“nut”) and as a raw material for the steroid +industry.®^ +Folk medicine — Fruits are pounded and boiled to extract the medicinal vulnerary oil. +The oil was poured over open wounds and apparently acted as an antiseptic and protective +covering against secondary infections. One Turkish surgeon regarded Inis as one of the best +stomachics, a most excellent remedy for curing wounds. In Ethiopia, the bark is used as an +antiseptic, the leaf to dress wounds, and the fruit as an anthelmintic laxative. In Palestine, +the oil is said to be used in folk medicine. Ghanans used the leaves as a vermifuge, whereas +Libyans use them to clean malignant wounds. Powdered root bark is used for herpes zoster +while the root extracts are suggested for malaria. Ghanans use the bark from the stem in +fumigation to heal the wounds of circumcision. Nigerians consider it abortifacient. The oil +from the fruits is applied to aching bones and swollen rheumatic joints by the Lebanese. +Extracts of the root have proven slightly effective in experimental malaria. The bark has +been used in treating syphilis. In Chad, the plant is used as a fumigant in liver disease, the +seed as a febrifuge, and the fruit for colds. Ugandans use the oil for sleeping sickness, but +the efficacy is questioned. Ayurvedics apply the fruit oil to ulcers, the fruit for other skin +ailments and rat bites, regarding the fruit as alexipharmic, alterative, analgesic, anthelmintic, +antidysenteric. Unanis use the fruit also for boils and leucoderma.^^’^^ ’^^ +Chemistry — A chloroform fraction of the stem bark, chromatographed over a column +of silica gel, yielded beta-sitosterol, bergapten, marmesin, and beta-sitosterol glucoside. +None of these compounds were active in eight 9KB5 (in vitro) or P0388 (in vivo) systems.^®' +Per 100 g, the fruit (ZMB) is reported to contain 339 calories, 6.1 to 11.1 g protein, 0.0 +to 1.7 g fat, 79.1 to 88.6 g total carbohydrate, 10.2 g fiber, 5.2 to 8.1 g ash, 130 to 380 +mg Ca. 400 mg P, and 39 mg ascorbic acid. Shoots contain (ZMB): 27.5 g protein, 1.5 g +fat, 64.4 g total carbohydrate, 23.3 g fiber, 6.6 g ash, 480 mg Ca, and 380 mg P; leaves +contain 11.6 g protein 4.2 g fat, 71.5 g total carbohydrate, 13.6 g fiber, and 12.7 g ash. +Seeds or “ nuts” contain (ZMB): 21.9 g protein, 45.7 g fat, and 3.3 g ash (21). The fruit +flesh contains 1% saponin, 38 to 40% sugar. The saponin from the pericarp contains glucose +and rhamnose; from the seeds, glucose, rhamnose, xylose, and ribose. The seed kernel +yields the steroid balanitesin, identical with the sapogenin C27H42O3 called diosgenin. The +seed oil (30 to 55%), colored yellow with alpha-carotene has 19% palmitic-, 14% +stearic-, 27% oleic-, 40% linoleic-, and traces of arachidonic-acids. Traces of yamogenin, +25-alpha-spirosta-3:5-diene and beta-sitosterol.'*^ +Description — Savanna tree, 5 to 7 (to 21) m tall; bark gray to dark-brown, with thick +ragged scales and long vertical fissures in which new yellow bark is visible; branchlets +green, smooth, armed with green straight forward-directed supra-axillary spines to 8 cm +long; leaves gray-green, 2 foliolate; leaflets obovate to orbicular-rhomboid, usually 2.5 to +5 cm long, 1.3 to 3 cm broad, flowers green to yellow-green, small, ca. 1.3 cm in diameter, +in supra-axillary clusters or rarely subracemose; fruit a plum-sized drupe, green at first, +turning yellow, broadly oblong-ellipsoid, with large, hard, pointed stone surrounded by +yellow-brown sticky edible flesh. +Germplasm — Reported from the Mediterranean Center of Diversity, desert date, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, insects, savanna, and waterlogging.*^ +Distribution — Widespread across North Africa, south to Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan, +Chad, Nigeria, Arabia, and Palestine.^^* +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Desert (with water) +to Dry Forest Life Zones, desert date is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1.5 to +17 dm (mean of 9 cases = 10), annual temperature of 18.7 to 27.9°C (mean of 9 cases = +24.3), and pH of 5.0 to 8.3 (mean of 6 cases = 6.9).*^ Commonly found in dry areas +occasionally subject to inundation. Sandy well-drained soil with slightly acid pH may be +most productive.*^ +42 Handbook of Nuts +Cultivation — Propagates widely by seeds naturally. Seeds germinate readily. Sometimes +planted in villages for the fruit and other parts. +Harvesting — Fruits are collected when ripe and spread out, often on roofs, to dry until +needed. Other parts of plants collected as needed. Available nearly year round. +Yields and economics — When steroid prices were volatile, this was viewed as an +alternative source. World consumption was expected to exceed 1000 MT diosgenin or +yamogenin by 1973 and 60 MT hecogenin. Seeds from Nigeria (42.8 to 48.4% oil) yielded +1.11 to 1.74% total sapogenins; from Tanzania (43.1% oil) 0.95% sapogenins; and, from +India (50.3%) 0.74% total sapogenins. +Energy — Roots have been used for producing charcoal. The wood, burning with little +smoke, is used for fuel wood. The oil could be used for fuel, better transesterified. +Biotic factors: — Desert date trees are attacked by the following fungi: Phoma balanites, +Septoria balanites, Diplodiella balanites, Metasphaeria balanites, and Schizophyllum +commune. +43 +BARRINGTONIA PROCERA (Miers) Kunth (MYRTACEAE) — Nua Nut +Uses — While nuts of many species are said to be used as fish poisons {B. asiatica, B. +cylindrostachya, B. racemosa), others are used for food (B. butonica, B. careya, B. edulis, +B. excelsa, B. magnifica, B. niedenzuana, B. novae-hiberniae, B. procera). The nua nut +is a common component of native meals on Santa Cruz, also eaten in between-meal snacks. +Smoked whole fruits can be stored. +Folk medicine — No data available. +Chemistry — No data available. +Description — Tree, sparingly branched, to 5 m tall or taller, the broad shiny leaves +clustered near the ends of the branches. Flowers in long pendulous cylindrical racemes, +yellow. Fruit an ovoid drupe; seed and kernel also ovoid. +Germplasm — Reported from the New Guinea Center of Diversity. The fruit epidermis +may be green or purple, the seed coat white or pink. In the Solomon Islands, it is generally +believed that the kernels from Santa Cruz are bigger than those elsewhere (see Figures 6 +and 7 in Yen^"^^). Other edible species known as cut-nuts in the Solomons are similar or +closely related. +Distribution — Limited to the Huon Peninsula of New Guinea, the New Guinea Islands, +the Solomons, and New Hebrides, grown as a village tree in Fiji. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Rain through Tropical Moist +to Wet Forest Life Zones, nua nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 60 +dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.4. +Cultivation — Propagated from seed or stem cutting. Seedling trees “ are said to reflect +the characteristics of the parental tree, as, of course, do cuttings, but the latter tend to grow +branched closer to the ground’’. ^ +Harvesting — Seasons of production are indefinite and nuts are available all year round. +The growth rate of fruit after fertilization is fast. There are only 6 weeks between the +flowering time of the upper part of the inflorescences and the harvest of such fruits. +Yields and economics — No data available. +Energy — No data available. +Biotic factors — No data available. +44 Handbook of Nuts +BERTHOLLETIA EXCELSA Humb. and Bonpl. (MYRTACEAE) — Brazil Nut, Para Nut, +Creme Nut, Castañas, Castanhado Para +Uses — Nutritious Brazil nuts are eaten raw, salted, or roasted. Seeds are consumed in +large quantities and are used in international trade. Kernels are the source of Brazil nut oil, +used for edible purposes and in the manufacture of soap. The wood is light pinkish-brown, +neither very hard nor heavy, and it is limited to cheap work.*^^^^^ +Folk medicine — There has been a flurry of interest in one certain formula of one Dr. +Revici, the formula containing selenium and vegetable oils or natural fatty acids. This +combination has been tried with cancer patients and, according to one Washington physician, +in AIDS. I am frankly skeptical, but would not hesitate to increase my consumption of +Brazil nuts were I suffering AIDS or cancer. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 644 calories, 4.7 g H2O, +17.4 g protein, 65.0 g fat, 9.6 g total carbohydrate, 3.9 g fiber, 3.3 g ash, 169 mg Ca, 620 +mg P, 3.6 mg Fe, 2 mg Na, 5 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.20 mg thiamine, 0.69 mg +riboflavin, 0.20 mg niacin, and 2 mg ascorbic acid.^^ Hager’s Handbook notes ca. 1.8% +myristic, 13.5% palmitic, 2.5% stearic, 55.6% oleic, and 21.6% linoleic acid glycerides, +and 0.24 to 0.26% barium.Hilditch and Williams‘S® tabulate the component fatty acid +percentage as 13.8 to 16.2% palmitic, 2.7 to 10.4% stearic, 30.5 to 58.3% oleic, and 22.8 +to ^4.9% linoleic acids. An analysis by Furr et al.‘^s reports the edible portion of the nuts +to contain 5.0 ppm Al, 0.02 As, 2.7 B, 1,764 Ba, 87 Br, 1,592 Ca, 0.03 Cd, 1.2 Ce, 246 +Cl, 1.9 Co, 0.6 Cr, 1.3 Cs, 18 Cu, 0.1 Eu, 1.7 F, 93 Fe, 0.01 Hg, 0.2 I, 5,405 K, 0.1 +La, 0.01 Lu, 3,370 Mg, 8.0 Mn, 7.2 Na, 5.8 Ni, 0.4 Pb, 103 Rb, 0.1 Sb, 0.02 Sc, 11 Se, +1,770 Si, 0.04 Sm, 3.5 Sn, 77 Sr, 0.1 Ta, 6.1 Ti, 0.01 V, 0.1 W, 0.2 Yb, and 41 ppm +Zn dry weight. The normal concentration of some of these elements in land plants are 50 +ppm B, 14 Ba, 15 Br, 2,000 Cl, 0.5 Co, 0.2 Cs, 14 Cu, 3.200 Mg, 630 Mn, 3 Ni, 20 Rb, +3,400 S, 26 Sr, and 0.2 ppm Se dry weight. They were higher in barium, bromine, cerium, +cobalt, cesium, magnesium, nickle, rubidium, scandium, selenium, silicon, strontium, tin. +45 +titanium, and ytterbium, and equal to or higher in europium, lanthanum, and tantalum than +any of the 12 nut species studied by Furr et al.*°^ Of 529 nuts analyzed for Se, 6% contained +100 ppm Se or more. The mean value for all nuts was 29.6 ppm, and the median value was +13.4 ppm. Hexane-extracted high-Se Brazil nut meal in a corn-based diet fed to rats produced +toxicity similar to that obtained from seleniferous com, selenomethionine, or sodium selenite +as assessed by weight gain, visually scored liver damage and liver, kidney, and spleen +weights. The Se in Brazil nuts may be as biologically potent as that from other sources. +Other nuts in this family (Lecythidaceae) contain so much selenium that overingestion can +lead to hair loss. Apparently selenium, an anticancer element, is essential in traces, toxic +in excess. However, the homeostatic human may cope with moderate excesses. “ . . . an­ +imals regulate their selenium content through excretion. When the element is in short supply, +excretory metabolite production is minimal. When the needs of the organism are being met, +excess selenium is eliminated by conversion to the excretory metabolites.” ^"^ +Description — Large forest tree, up to 40 m tall; leaves alternate, short-petioled, leathery, +oblong, with wavy margin, 30 to 50 cm long, 7.5 to 15 cm broad; flowers in large erect +spike-like racemes, white to cream, sepals united but finally separating into two deciduous +sepals; fruit large, brown, woody, globose, 10 to 15 cm in diameter, weighing up to 2 kg, +with an aperture at one end which is closed by a woody plug and must be broken open to +extract the “ nuts” inside; fruit may remain on the trees several months after ripening; seeds +12 to 24 per fruit, triangular, with a brown homy testa. +Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, Brazil nut, or +CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate lateritic soils. +Distribution — Native to the Amazon basin of Northern Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Pern, +Venezuela, and Guianas, mainly along banks of the Amazon and upper Orinoco Rivers and +their tributaries. Introduced into Sri Lanka in 1880 and Singapore in 1881.^^^ +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Tropical Dry through Wet Forest Life +Zones, Brazil nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.5 to 41.0 (mean of 7 +cases = 29.3), annual temperature of 21.3 to 27.4°C (mean of 7 cases = 25.4), and pH +of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 6 cases = 5.8).®^ A tropical tree, sometimes gregarious, preferring +high land, beyond reach of periodical floods. Thrives best in rich alluvial soil, in a hot moist +climate. +Cultivation — Brazil nuts are collected from wild trees and are nowhere cultivated for +commercial production. Trees are propagated from seed or by layering. From 10 to 25 years +are required for fmiting to begin. Attempts to establish Brazil nut plantations have met with +mediocrity, at best.^^^ +Harvesting — After fmits have fallen and are gathered, usually during the dry season, +the nuts are extracted and shipped to Manaos or Belem do Para, where they are graded and +exported to the U.S. and Europe. +Yields and economics — A good tree will yield 300 fruits at a time, ca. 15 months after +flowering. An adult tree may yield, in normal years, from 30 to 50 kg of fruits, but yields +of more than 2000 kg per tree are reported. Early in the 20th century, with the fall of +Brazilian rubber prices in 1910 due to Asian competition, Brazil nuts became a vital export. +The first U.S. customs entry recorded was 1873, when more than 1,800 MT unshelled nuts +entered at an average price less than $0.15/kg. By 1982, spot prices for unshelled nuts were +over $3.00/kg. By 1978, 15,472 MT of in-shell nuts were exported, contrasted to 5,367 +shelled nuts. The U.S. is the largest importer, followed by the U.K., West Germany, Italy, +France, Australia, and the Netherlands. Brazilian output is predicted to remain steady at +around 40 to 60 thousand MT in shell-nuts for both internal and external consumption. The +principal producer of Brazil nuts is Brazil. In 1971, the Brazil nut crop in Brazil was 22,500 +MT, and in 1970, 40,000 MT. Domestic consumption in Brazil is 1,000 to 2,000 MT per +year. Shelled assorted nuts commanded $0.55/lb; unshelled, dehydrated nuts $0.23/lb; and +natural unshelled nuts $0.18/lb.^^^’^^^ +46 Handbook of Nuts +Energy — Shells and spoiled kernels supplement firewood in the power plants providing +heat for the diy'ers. Imperfect nuts are used for oil extraction, the press-cake employed as +feed for animals, whose manure could be used to extend fuel. +Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack this tree: Actinomyces brasi- +liensis, Aspergillus flavus, Cephalosporium bertholletianum, Cercospora bertholletiae (Gray +spot), Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Fusarium sp., Myxosporium sp., Pellionella macros- +pora, Phytophthora heveaef Piptocephalus sphaerocephala, Phomopsis bertholletianum, +and Thamnidium elegans. Albuquerque et al.^ recommend Cuprosan copper oxychloride +or difolatan-80-captafol for control of Phytopthora leaf blight. The nematode, Meloidogyne +incognita, has been found causing heavy galling on the roots. +47 +BORASSUS FLABELLIFER L. (ARECACEAE) — Palmyra Palm, Brab Tree, Woman’s +Coconut +Syn.: Borassus flabelliformis Roxb. {l)Borassus aethiopum Mart. +Uses — Palmyra palm is grown for the juice or toddy, extracted from the inflorescence +from which sugar or jaggery is made. Tender fruits resembling pieces of translucent ice are +eaten during hot season. Seeds are eaten as well as fruits. Fleshy scales of young seedling +shoots are eaten as a delicacy, especially in northern Sri Lanka, or dried to make a starchy +powder (reported to contain a neurotoxin). Salt prepared from leaves. The inflorescence is +a source of sugar, wine, and vinegar. Five types of fiber are obtained from different parts +of the plant, used for hats, thatching houses, books, writing paper, mats, bags, and all types +of utensils for carrying or storing water and food. Timber is black, sometimes with yellow +grain, strong, splits easily; said to withstand a greater cross-strain than any other known +timber; used for boat making, rafters, water pipes, walking sticks, umbrella handles and +rulers. Tree also yields a black gum. A Tamil poem enumerates 801 ways to use this palm. +Sometimes planted as a windbreak. +Folk medicine — An emollient made from the root is said to be a folk remedy for +indurations. Flower or root is a folk remedy for tumors of the uterus (Cambodia). Sprouting +seed used as a diuretic and galactagogue. Petiole used as a vermifuge in Cambodia. Root +regarded as cooling. Ash of spathe given for enlarged spleens. Juice drunk before breakfast +has important medicinal properties, and is stimulant and antiphlegmatic. Juice is diuretic, +stimulant, antiphlegmatic, useful in inflammatory affections and dropsy; pulp is demulcent +and nutritive.^* +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature fruit is reported to contain 43 calories, 87.6 g H2O, +0.8 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 10.9 g total carbohydrate, 2.0 g fiber, 0.6 g ash, 27 mg Ca, 30 +mg P, 1.0 mg Fe, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.02 mg riboflavin, 0.3 mg niacin, and 5 mg ascorbic +acid. Sap contains about 12% sugar. Spontaneous fermentation produces ca. 3% alcohol +and 0.1% acids during the first 6 to 8 hr. Beyond this, fermentation goes to 5%, but there +is too much butyric acid. A cheap source of vinegar. Accordingto the Wealth of India, the +nira (fresh sap) contains 85.9% moisture, 0.2% protein, 0.02% fat, 0.29 ash, 13.5% car­ +bohydrates, 12.6% total sugar, and 5.7 mg Vitamin C per 1(X) g; the gur (boiled-down +molasses) contains 8.6% moisture, 1.7% protein, 0.08% fat, 1.8% ash, 88.5% carbohydrate. +48 Handbook of Nuts +(84% total sugar); the seed pulp contains 92.6% moisture, 0.6% protein, 0.1% fat, 0.3% +ash, 6.3% carbohydrates, and 13.1 mg/100 g vitamin The mannocellulose of the +endosperm is transformed to glucose via mannose. +Toxicity — Fleshy scale leaves of the germinating seeds, eaten by humans, contain a +neurotoxin. +Description — Tall palm, 20 to 30 m high; trunk cylindrical, 30 to 35 cm in diameter, +very hard, black, mainly composed of stiff longitudinal fibers, central portion soft and +starchy, with crown of 30 to 40 fan-like leaves. Leaves glaucous, palmate, up to 3.3 m +wide, stiff, with numerous free pointed tips, petiole 11.3 m long, channeled above, with +hard saw-like teeth on margins. Inflorescence stalks among the leaves, long, much-branched; +male and female flowers on separate trees; male flowers borne on thick digitate processes, +female flowers appearing like small fruits. Fruit a large drupe, 15 to 20^ cm in diameter, +depressed-globular, brown; exterior smooth, enclosed in a tough matted fiber; interior very +fibrous, with 2 to 3 seeds; seeds rounded, but flattish, 3.7 to 5 cm across. Spathes begin +to appear in November or December, but flowers in March; fruits July-August. +Germplasm — Reported from the African and, secondarily, the Hindustani Centers of +Diversity, palmyra palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, fire, high +pH, salt, sand, slope, savannah, waterlogging, and wind. The genus Borassus is believed +to contain one or as many as eight species, depending on your taxonomic point of view. +Kovoor maintains that the African B. aethiopum is distinct from B. flabellifer. No dwarf +mutants have been reported. (2n = 36.)^^’^^^ +Distribution — Said to be native to Africa, but also claimed to be indigenous to tropical +India and Malaysia, where it is both wild and cultivated, especially in coastal areas. Widely +cultivated throughout tropical Asia and Africa (Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea- +Bissau, Ivory Coast, Malagasy, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Upper +Volta), with huge stands covering thousands of hectares. Grown in comparatively dry parts +of Burma, India, Sri Lanka, and Malaya.Kovoor^^^ estimates that there are 10,615,000 +palmyra in Sri Lanka, 60 million in India, 2,350,000 in Burma, 1,800,000 in Kampuchea, +5 million in east Java. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Wet +Forest Life Zones, palmyra palm is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.9 +dm (mean of 11 cases = 18.8), annual temperature of 20.6 to 27.5°C (mean of 11 cases += 24.3°C), and pH of 4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 7 cases = 6.4).^^ Palmyra palm is grown in +regions with a pronounced dry monsoon, being especially abundant in all sandy tracts near +the sea, on embankments, and in mixed coconut and date palm jungles of Bengal.Though +drought-tolerant, it suffers little from prolonged flooding. Kovoor^^^ suggests that “ its natural +preference is for rich alluvial soil” . +Cultivation — Plants develop from self-sown seed. Seeds germinate, producing a “ sinker” , +which grows downward 1 m before producing growth at top. “ Once sprouted, the seedling +cannot be transported. Trees are slow-growing, taking 15 to 20 years before showing a +stem above ground; in the early stages only the underground portion of the stem increases +in thickness. Male and female trees cannot be distinguished until they flower. For food, the +seed-bed is prepared and nuts planted as close together as possible about June or July, about +50 seeds to the square meter. In about 3 to 4 months the nuts are dug up, by which time +they have germinated, and the sprouts are eaten as a vegetable. Actually, the nut is broken +open and the embryo eaten dry or made into a flour, tasting similar to tapioca. +Harvesting — Trees begin to flower when 12 to 15 years old, depending on the region, +and continue to flower for about 50 years. Female trees yield about twice as much sap as +male trees. Fresh sap, called “ sweet toddy” or “ nira” , containing about 12% sucrose, is +obtained by tapping the flower stalk. Juice may be used fresh as a beverage, or, if not treated +promptly, begins to ferment into an intoxicating liquor. Fresh juice boiled down into a sugar +called jaggery or gur, with about 80% sucrose and 2.5% glucose, is an important sugar in +49 +southern India and Burma. Tapping does not injure the tree. However, every 3 years the +sap-drawing process is omitted; otherwise the tree would die. A toddy collector climbs the +tree, tightly binds the spathes with thongs to prevent further opening, and then thoroughly +bruises the embryo flower within to facilitate the exit of juice. This operation is repeated +for several days, and on each occasion a thin slice is removed from spathe to facilitate +running of sap and to prevent it bursting the bound spathe. In about 8 days, sap begins to +exude into an earthen pot placed for that purpose. Pots are emptied twice daily, the pots +coated with lime inside to prevent fermentation. In factories, raw gur is heaped on platforms +for about 2 months to drain away most of the molasses. Then it is dissolved in water and +refined in the usual manner to make crystalline sugar. Molasses obtained during crystalli­ +zation is used for producing arrack. Five types of fibers may be obtained from the Palmyra +palm, each with specific characteristics and uses: +1. Fibers about 60 cm long, separated from leafstalks, called “ Bassine” , are used for +making rope, twine, and sometimes paper. +2. A loose fiber surrounds the base of the leafstalk. +3. “ Tar” , prepared from the interior of stem without any spinning or twisting, is plaited +into fishtraps. +4. A coir is derived from the pericarp. +5. Fibrous materials of the leaves, are tom into strips, prepared, dyed, plaited into braids, +and worked up into basketware, fancy boxes, cigar cases and hats. In Bengal, long +strips of leaf are employed by children as washable slates. +Kovoor^^^ gives good details of various methods for tapping this and other palms. +Yields and economics — Trees yield 4 to 5 quarts of sap daily for 4 to 5 months; one +gallon of sap yields about 680 g jaggery sugar, which is about 80% saccharose or sucrose. +Joshi and Gopinathan‘^^ suggest that Asian Indians can more cheaply get nearly twice as +much sugar per hectare from palm as sugar cane, i.e., ca. 6,000 kg/ha vs. 3,500 kg/ha. +Comparing B orassus with other Indian sugar palms, they note that B orassus is longest lived +(90 to 120 years), and can be tapped more than twice as many years (70 to 95 years) as +others, yielding 20 to 70 kg tree, with 1,250 trees per hectare. At one time, one-fourth of +the inhabitants of northern Sri Lanka were dependent on this tree for subsistence; in India +many also depend on it. Most of the trade in Palmyra goes through the Port of Madras. +Energy — Ironically, the palmyra is better as a fire-breaker in arid regions of West +Africa prone to wild fires. Its timber bums very poorly as firewood, and young palms are +said to be more fire resistant than old ones. The relatively high yields of sugar could be +converted renewably to alcohol for energy purposes. Kovoor^^^ notes that low bearers may +produce only about 1 €, average ones 6 to 10 €, and exceptional trees 20 Í sap per day. +Natural fermentation can take these liters to 5 to 6% ethanol. +Biotic factors — The most serious fungus attacking palmyra palm is Pythium palm ivorum +(Bud-rot, which grows into the growing point and ultimately kills the tree). Other fungal +diseases include: C ladosporiu m bora ssii, C urvularia lunata, G raphiola boras si, M icroxy- +phium sp., P en icillopsis clavariaeform is, P estalotia palm arum , P hytophthora palm ivo ra , +S phaerodothis b o ra ssi, R osellinia cocoes. Palmyra is attacked by insects which affect coconut +palm: Rhinoceros beetle (O ryctes rh in oceros)’, Black headed caterpillar {N ephantis serin o p a ),’ +and Red palm weevil (R hynchophorus ferrugineus).^^^’^^^ Termites and grubs of the Rhi­ +noceros beetle can be very destmctive to germinating seeds. In Guinea-Bissau, several insects +“ commence their destructive careers by turning saprophytic on dead palms” . The most +predominant of them is O ryctes g ig a s, whereas others like O. ow arien sis, O. m on oceros, +R h yn ch ophoru sph oen icis, P latygen ia barbata, and P achnoda m arginella are common. Still, +Kovoor^^^ concludes that the palm is extraordinarily disease-resistant. One study showed +that more than 2% of the trees were infested with scorpions or snakes. +50 Handbook of Nuts +BROSIMUM ALICASTRUM Swartz (MORACEAE) — Breadnut, Ramon, Capomo, Masico +Uses — Branches and leaves used as an important cattle fodder, especially during the +drier months in regions where trees are plentiful. Lopped branches (ramón) are relished by +cattle; fallen leaves and nuts are also relished by cattle and pigs. Feeding ramón forage is +said to augment milk production 1 to 2 € a day in dairy cattle. The milky latex, which flows +freely when the trunk is cut, is mixed with chicle or drunk like cow’s milk. Sweet pericarp +of fruit eaten raw by humans. Fruits boiled and eaten in Costa Rica. The seeds, or breadnuts, +with chestnut-like flavor, are eaten raw, boiled, roasted, or reduced to a meal often mixed +with com meal for making tortillas, or baked with green plaintain. They are eaten alone or +with plantain, maize, or honey, or boiled in symp to make a sweetmeat. Seeds used as a +coffee substitute. Wood is hard, compact, white, grayish, or tinged with pink, easy to work +and used in carpentry, a valuable timber sometimes used in constmction, cabinet work, and +other purposes in Yucatan. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the plant is used in folk remedies for cancer +of the utems. Reported to be lactagague and sedative, ramón is a folk remedy for asthma +(latex, leaves), bronchitis, and chest ailments.^’ Guatemalans drink the latex as a pectoral +for stomach disorders. Crushed seeds are taken in sweetened water as a lactagogue. The +bark shows CNS-depressant activity Leaf infusions are used in cough and kidney ailments. +The diluted latex is used to aid tooth extraction. +Chemistry — Per 1(X) g, the leaf is reported to contain 127 calories, 62.0 g H2O, 3.2 g +protein, 1.2 g fat, 30.6 g total carbohydrate, 8.9 g fiber, 3.0 g ash, 530 mg Ca, 68 mg P, +5.4 mg Fe, 820 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.24 mg thiamine, 0.51 mg riboflavin, 1.4 +mg niacin, and 55 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, the fruit is reported to contain 56 calories, +84.0 g H2O, 2.5 g protein, 0.5 g fat, 12.1 g total carbohydrate, 1.2 g fiber, 0.9 g ash, 45 +51 +mg Ca, 36 mg P, 0.8 mg Fe, 840 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.5 mg thiamine, 1.52 mg +riboflavin, 0.8 mg niacin, and 28 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain +363 calories, 6.5 g H2O, 11.4 g protein, 1.6 g fat, 76.1 g total carbohydrate, 6.2 g fiber, +4.4 g ash, 211 mg Ca, 142 mg P, 4.6 mg Fe, 128 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.03 mg +thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin, and 2.1 mg niacin. Another seed analysis shows, per 100 g +(oven-dry basis), 361 calories, 40 to 50 g H2O, 12.8 g protein, 4.6 g fiber, 178 mg Ca, +122 mg P, 3.8 mg Fe, KX) (xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.1 mg thiamine, 0.1 mg riboflavin, +1.6 mg niacin, and 50 mg ascorbic acid. Seed contains an essential oil, resin, wax, mucilage, +dextrin, and glucose. The crude protein content of the seeds in higher than com, the tryp­ +tophan content is four times higher, significant among corn-fed L atins.P eters and Pardo- +Tejeda^^® report the seeds to contain 10.4% leucine, 9.7% valine, 3.3% isoleucine, 4.0% +phenylalanine, 2.3% lysine, 2.4% threonine, 2.3% tryptophan, 1.0% hisitidine, 0.7% me­ +thionine, 5.1% arginine, 15.3% aspartic acid, 6.7% proline, 9.9% cystine, 2.9% serine, +2.3% glycine, 3.7% tyrosine, and 2.5% alanine. +Description — Evergreen, dioecious, tropical tree, 20 to 35(to 40) m tall, trunk to 1 m +in diameter, sometimes with buttresses; latex white to yellow; leafy twigs 1 to 4 mm thick, +glabrous or sparsely pubemlent; leaves alternate, elliptic to oblong or lanceolate, slightly +inequilateral, often broadest above to below the middle, 4 to 28 cm long, 2 to 11 cm broad, +chartaceous to coriaceous, acuminate, nearly acute, also acute at the base, or obtuse, tmncate +or subcordate; margin entire, rarely denticulate; glabrous to sparsely pubemlent beneath, +and pubescent on the costa, 12 to 21 pairs of secondary veins, with or without some parallel +tertiary veins; petioles 2 to 14 mm long; stipules nearly fully amplexicaul, 5 to 15 mm long, +glabrous to pubescent; inflorescences solitary, in twos or several together, subglobose to +ellipsoid, subsessile or pedunculate, the peduncle up to 1.5 cm long; bracts 0.2 to 2 mm in +diameter, pubemlent, the basal ones sometimes basally attached; staminate influorescence +3 to 8 mm in diameter, with one central abortive pistillate flower; staminate flowers nu­ +merous, perianth absent or minute one, 1 stamen; pistillate inflorescence 2 to 4 mm in +diameter, with 1 or 2, occasionally many, abortive flowers, style 1.5 to 8.5 mm long, +stigmas 0.2 to 8 mm long; infmctescences subglobose, 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, at maturity +yellow, brownish, or orange; seeds small, roundish, yellow or brownish, 1.3 cm or less in +diameter, borne singly or in twos, in a thin, paper-like, stout shell, surface of seed smooth +or somewhat granular. Flowers throughout the year.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the Middle and South American Centers of Diversity, +ramón, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, fungi, insects, limestone, slope, and +waterlogging.®^ Besides the typical form with the anthers peltate with fused thecae, found +in West Indies and Central America, there is a subsp. bolivarense (Pittier) Berg, called +Guaimoro (Colombia and Venezuela), and Tillo (Ecuador), in which thecae are free, growing +from Panama through the Andes to Guyana and in Brazil to Acre Territory. +Distribution — Native from the Pacific Coast of Mexico (Sinaloa) south through Central +America to Ecuador, Guyana, and parts of Brazil; also in the West Indies. Introduced and +planted in Singapore, Trinidad, and Florida. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest +Life Zones, ramón is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 40 dm, annual tem­ +perature of 19 to 26°C, and pH of 5.0 to 8.0. Nearly pure stands may occur on steep +calcareous slopes.®^ In evergreen, semi-evergreen or deciduous forests in tropical climates, +from 50 to 8(X) m (to 1,0(X) m) altitudes, sometimes in cloud-forests, regionally abundant, +but also planted. Trees are extremely tolerant of drought, and grow well in dry habitats as +well as in seasonally flooded places as along rivers and in swampy areas. Common on +limestone in Jamaica. Thrives on various types of soils in tropical regions.^^® +Cultivation — Propagated by seeds, cuttings, and air-layering. Seeds germinate readily. +After trees are established, they grow well without much care. Often form a large portion +of the forest tree population in some regions.^^® +52 Handbook of Nuts +Harvesting — Branches are cut by men who climb the trees with machetes, and cut down +limbs for stock to browse upon. To increase the yield of fodder, it is suggested that close­ +planting and regular coppicing may be tested. Nuts collected from the ground by natives +are used for food, or for making a black meal for making tortillas and other food-stuffs. +Timber is harvested from mature trees and used, especially in the Yucatan. +Yields and economics — Fodder yield of natural and coppiced trees is not known but +should be ascertained. There seems to be plenty of fodder material about when it is needed +during dry spells.Peters and Pardo-Tejeda^^® put yields at 50 to 75 kg fruit per female +tree per year. Based on a rough estimate of the distribution in Vera Cruz, Mexico, it is +estimated that 80,000 MT seed could be collected annually with an annual production of +10,000 MT crude protein, leaving the trees standing strong against erosion. Yucatan plantings +are producing 10 to 15 MT forage per ha at each lopping. Thus ramón plantations produce +almost twice as much (lactogenic) forage as established pasture.O f great value since +ancient times in Central America, the West Indies, and northern tropical South America for +a fodder food for stock and as a source of seeds for meal, latex for food, and timber for +construction and other purposes. Not a commercial trade crop, but very important locally +for these many purposes. +Energy — Assuming that the 80,000 MT seed was gathered for the production of 10,000 +MT crude protein, there would, of course, be a 70,000 MT biomass available for energy +production. I would estimate that litter-fall from this species might approach 5 to 10 MT/ha. +Although not a leader among firewoods, the wood could also be renewably gathered for +fuel wood. As Gomez-Pampa^'^ notes, “ With a year-round, food-producing plant, we can +liberate a good part of the energy that is currently spent on the production of grain for basic +food products in tropical regions,” where “ weakness of tropical soils for annual crops has +always been a limiting factor.” +Biotic Factors — Seeds stored when fresh are promptly infested by Aspergillus, some +of which contain toxic compounds. +53 +BROSIMUM UTILE (H.B.K.) Pitt. (MORACEAE) — Cow Tree, Palo de Vaca +Syn.: B rosiu m g alactoden dron D. Don in Sweet, G alactoden dron utile H.B.K. +Uses — Latex from trunk, considered to be highly nutritive, is used by natives as a milk­ +like beverage, as a cream substitute in coffee, made into a kind of vegetable cheese, and +made into a dessert after being chilled, whipped, and flavored. Laborers soak their bread +in it. Used as a base for chewing gum. Bark used by Indians for making cloth, blankets, +and sails. Plants grown in tropical areas for fruit or nuts and for leaves used for fodder. +Fleshy outer layer of fruit eaten by parrots. Humans also eat the fruits, raw or cooked.^® +The soft, white wood, though not durable, has been used for concrete forms, boxes, and +sheathing. +Folk medicine — According to Hartw ell,a plaster of the milk is said to be a folk +remedy for swelling of the spleen and indolent tumors. Reported to be lactagague and +masticatory, cow tree is a folk remedy for asthma, inflammation, and tumors.^’ The latex +is taken for asthma in Venezuela, and as an astringent for diarrhea in Costa Rica.^^'^ +Chemistry — The latex contains 3.8% wax, 0.4% fibrin, 4.7% sugar and gum, and +31.4% resins.Garcia-Barriga*®^ states that the latex contains 57.3% water, 0.4% albumen, +31.4% wax of the formula C35H66O3, 5.8% wax of the formula C35H58O7, and 4.7% gum +and sugars. +Description — Laticiferous tree, 20 to 25 m tall, with simple trunk 40 to 50 cm in +diameter at base, bark thick, grayish, smooth or verrucose, crown elongate; young brancelets +subangular, more or less pubescent; leaves coriaceous; petioles 0.5 to 1.5 cm long, thick, +canaliculate, sparsely pubescent; blades ovate, elliptic, rounded at base, abruptly acuminate +at apex in a drip tip, 10 to 25 cm long, 3.5 to 9.5 cm broad, glabrous on both surfaces, +green above, golden-brown beneath, margin entire, venation impressed on upper surface, +prominent and slightly pubescent on lower one; primary veins 27 to 30, parallel, straight, +almost transverse; stipules about 2 cm long, acute-lanceolate, silky pubescent, canducous, +leaving a circular scar at each node; receptacles globose with 1 female flower, solitary in +axils of leaves, long-pedunculate, about 7 mm in diameter in flowering stage; bractlet +orbicular, thick, sessile, pilose-pubescent; staminal bractlets short (0.5 mm long), broad and +ciliate; stamens 0.7 to 1.4 mm long, solitary, with smooth filaments, anthers ovate and 2- +celled; ovary inserted 2.5 to 3 mm deep in receptacle; fruit depressed-globose, 2 to 2.5 cm +in diameter, epicarp fleshy, 4 to 6 mm thick, yellow at maturity, mesocarp woody, rugose +on surface, entirely filled with a single almond-like, white seed. Flowers and fruits +September. +Germplasm — Reported from the Middle and South American Centers of Diversity, cow +tree, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate slope. +Distribution — Native to tropical America from Nicaragua and Costa Rica south into +northern South America, Colombia, and Venezuela, sometimes being the common tree in +upland forests. +Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, cow tree is reported +to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 40 dm, annual temperature of 25 to 27°C, and pH +of 8.0.^^ Thrives in wet and subtropical climates, especially on hillsides bordering rivers.^^® +Cultivation — Propagation by cuttings over heat. When cuttings are rooted, they are +planted in the forest where they soon became established. Plants rarely cultivated as a pure +crop, because the trees freely propagate naturally in the forest. +Harvesting — Incisions are made in trunk of tree, after which there is a profuse flow of +gluey, thick milk, destitute of acridity and giving off a very agreeable balsamic odor. When +exposed to air, the fluid displays on its surface, probably by absorption of atmospheric +oxygen, membranes of a highly animal nature, yellowish and thready, like those of cheese. +These, when separated from the more watery liquid, are nearly as elastic as those of caoutch­ +54 Handbook of Nuts +ouc, but in time they exhibit the same tendency to purify as gelatin. The milk itself, kept +in a corked bottle, only deposits a small amount of coagulum and continues to give off the +balsamic scent. Large quantities of this vegetable milk are drunk by the natives and it has +been noted that workers gain weight during that time of year when the tree produces the +most milk.‘^ ’^^^ +Yields and economics — No yield data available. Widely used in the areas where the +tree grows native, namely southern Central America and northern South America. Not known +to be of international commercial value. +Energy — The wood can serve as a fuel wood, said to bum green. Resin extracted from +the fmits is used to make candles. The latex is mixed with balsa charcoal and wrapped in +palm leaves to serve as a torch. +Biotic factors — I find no reports of pests or diseases on this tree. +55 +BRUGUIERA GYMNORRHIZA (L.) Savigny (RHIZOPHORACEAE) — Burma Mangrove +Syn.: B ru g u iera con ju gata Auct. +Uses — The heavy wood (sp. grav. 0.87 to 1.08) is durable, but hard to saw and work. +It is used for construction, furniture, house-posts, and pilings.Thousands of tons of +Bruguiera wood chips are exported annually from Indonesia, Sabah, and Sarawak for pulp +and for rayon manufacture.Fruits are eaten, but not when anything better is available. +More often, they are chewed as astringent with the betel quid. Since it is mostly the seed +or embryo of this one-seeded indéhiscent fruit that is eaten, this can be called a tropical +nut. Embryos of several species are eaten, usually after processing.Chinese in Java make +a sweetmeat therefrom. In the South Pacific, fruits are peeled, sliced, and soaked in water +for several hours, then steamed or boiled and eaten with coconut cream.Dutch Indians +use the bark to flavor raw fish. The leaves and peeled hypocotyls are eaten in the Moluccas +after soaking and boiling.In the Loyalty Islands, the embryo is kept for months after +sundrying.The phlobaphene coloring matter is used in China and Malaya for black dye.^^ +In South Africa, the tree has been planted to stabilize dunes and in fresh-water swamps. +Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent,^* the bark is used for diarrhea and fever in +Indonesia.Cambodians use the astringent bark for malaria. +Chemistry — In Burma, leaves may contain 18.3% H2O, 13.5% tannin; outer cortex +(small trees) 14.6 and 7.9, outer cortex (large trees) 14.2 and 10.8; twig bark 13.1 and +14.8, bole bark (small trees) 16.3 and 31.7; whereas the bole bark of large trees contains +12.5% H2O, 42.3% tannin. Bark contains from ca.4 to 53.12% tannin, according to Watt +and Breyer-Brandwijk^^^ and The Wealth of India +Toxicity — Eating too much (bark) is dangerous.The skull and crossbones indicate +that Menninger^^ considers the “ nuts” to be poisonous. +Description — Evergreen tree 8 to 25(to 35) m high, with straight trunk 40 to 90 cm in +diameter, buttressed at base, and with many upright pneumatophores rising to 45 cm from +Handbook of Nuts +56 +long horizontal roots. Bark gray to blackish, smooth to roughly fissured, thick; inner bark +reddish. Leaves opposite, elliptical, 9 to 20 cm long, 5 to 7 cm wide, acute at both ends, +entire, without visible veins, thick, leathery, glabrous. Petioles 2 to 4.5 cm long. Flowers +single in leaf axils, 3 to 4 cm long, usually drooping on stalk of 1 to 2.5 cm, red to yellowish +or cream-colored, with red to pink-red bell-shaped hypanthium. Calyx with 10 to 14 very +narrow, leathery lobes. Petals 10 to 14, 13 to 15 mm long, white turning brown, each with +2 narrow lobes ending in 3 to 4 bristles. Stamens 2, nearly hidden at base of each petal. +Pistil with inferior 3- to 4-celled ovary, each cell with 2 ovules; style slender; stigma with +3 to 4 short forks. Berry drooping, ovoid or turbinate, 2 to 2.5 cm long. Seed 1, viviparous, +finally 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter. +Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani, African, Australian, and Indonesian-In- +dochina Centers of Diversity, Burma mangrove, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, +disease, high pH, insects, pest, salt, shade, waterlogging. +Distribution — Tropical South and East Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, +southeastern Asia, Ryukyu; throughout Malaysia to Philippines, Australia, Micronesia, and +Polynesia. Introduced into Hawaii.'** +Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Moist to Rain through Subtropical Moist +to Rain Forest Life Zones, Burma mangrove is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of +10 to 80 dm, annual temperature of 20 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. One of the largest +trees in the Malayan mangroves, usually on drier well-aerated soils toward the landward +side, often dominating with occasional stems >35 m tall. It is probably the longest-lived +of the mangroves. It can stand “ any amount of shade,M ostly on brackish or saline silts +of depositing shores and marshes. +Cultivation — According to the NAS,^^^ planting is usually not needed, because natural +regeneration is so successful. In Avicennia and Rhizophora, direct seeding results in ca.90% +survival. +Harvesting — Mostly harvested from natural stands. Species of Rhizophoraceae, growing +only from the tips of the branches, are often killed by indiscriminate lopping of branches. +After felling, its regeneration is often very scant and there is danger of overgrowth by +Acrostichum (but once seedlings have established themselves, the “ fern acts rather as a +nurse, forcing the seedling up.“ ).''^® +Yields and economics — A good mangrove stand can show annual productivity of 10 +to 20(to 25) MT/ha/year, but for firewood purposes, I would reduce that to 10 to 20 (to 25) +m^/ha/year, figuring that as optimal rather than average. Litter-fall may account for 1/3 to +1/2 of above-ground productivity. Because of the heaviness of the wood, a cubic meter of +mangrove wood is generally more valuable than the wood of other species. +Energy — Wood widely used for charcoal and fuel.'** For charcoal, the tree seems to +rank with Rhizophora, with an even higher calorific value. According to The Wealth of +Indiaf^ the calorific value of moisture-free sapwood is 5,169 cals, heartwood 5,019. +Biotic factors — No data available. +57 +BUCHANANIA LANZAN Spreng. (ANACARDIACEAE) Chirauli Nut, Cuddapah Almond, +Cheronjee, Chironjii, Almondette +Syn.: B. latifolia Roxb. +Uses — Cuddapah almond is cultivated for the fresh fruit, which has a very agreeable +flavor. The delicate nutty-flavored seed is very nutritious, especially when roasted. Seeds +are consumed by natives of India and Burma, roasted with milk or as sweetmeats. Seeds +are also the source of an excellent oil, which is light yellow, sweet, mild with pleasant +aroma, and used as a substitute for olive oil or almond oil in confectionery, and in medicinal +preparations — especially applied to glandular swellings of the neck. A gum (Chironji- +kigond) is sold at bazaars in India and has adhesive properties. Kernels are used as important +articles of trade, in exchange for salt, grain, and cloth. Leaves are used as fodder in Bombay +and Punjab. Bark and fruits furnish a natural varnish. A pellucid gum, obtained from wounds +on stems, is used in diarrhea. Used to tan leathers of dark reddish-brown color with a +somewhat stiff, harsh texture. Wood is light gray to grayish-brown, sometimes with a faint +yellow tinge, to dark-brown in heartwood of old trees, rough, very light, straight-grained, +coarse-textured, moderately strong, used for boxes, yokes, doors, cheap furniture, posts, +and bedsteads. Berar females use the pounded kernels to remove facial spots and +blemishes. +Folk medicine — Reported to be antidotal for fish poisoning and scorpion stings, al­ +mondette is a folk remedy for asthma, bronchitis, bums, cholera, consumption, cough, +diarrhea, dysuria, fever, gingivitis, phthisis, and snakebite.Describing the genus Buck- +anania as therapeutically inert, Kirtikar and Basu^^^ go on to describe the almondette as +used in the Ayurvedic and Yunani systems of medicines. Ayurvedics use the roots for +biliousness and blood disorders; the fruits for blood diseases, fevers, impotence, thirst, and +ulcers; the aphrodisiac cardiotonic seeds for biliousness. Yunani consider the seed aphro­ +disiac, expectorant, stomachic, and tonic. Useful in fever, gleet, and urinary concretions, +58 Handbook of Nuts +it is believed to cause headache. Yunani regard the leaf juice as antibilious, aphrodisiac, +depurative, digestive, expectorant, purgative, and refrigerant. The seed oil is applied to +glandular swellings on the neck. It is also used for itch, pimples, and prickly heat. In Madras, +the gum is given with goat’s milk for intercostal pain. Hakims apply the fruit to inflamed +or indurate tongue.^' +Chemistry — Seeds contain 51.8% oil, 12.1% starch, 21.6% protein, 5% sugar;^^^ bark +contains 13.4% tannin.Kernels also contain 152 mg Ca and 499 mg P (per 1(X) g); deficient +in amino acids lysine and methionine.The fatty acid composition of B. lanzan seed oil, +determined by urea complex formation and GLC, was found to be: myristic, 0.6%, palmitic, +33.4%, stearic, 6.3%, oleic, 53.7%, and linoleic, 6.0%. Triglyceride compositions of the +native seed oil were calculated from the fatty acid compositions of the triglycerides and of +the corresponding 2-monoglycerides produced by pancreatic lipase hydrolysis. The oil is +composed of 3.2, 35.8, 45.5, and 15.5% trisaturated, monounsaturated disaturated, diun- +saturated monosaturated, and triunsaturated glycerides, respectively. The special character­ +istics of B. lanzan seed oil is its content of 22.7, 31.0, and 11.3% dipalmitoolein, +dioleopalmitin, and triolein, respectively. The percent trisaturated glyceride content of the +oil increased from 3.2 to 7.5 by the process of randomization. On directed interesterification, +the oil yielded a product with a slip-point of 41.5°C which may be suitable as a coating +material for delayed action tablets. The oil also appears to be a promising commercial source +of palmitic and oleic acids. +Description — Moderate-sized tree, up to 17 m tall and a girth of 1.3 m; young branches +pubescent; leaves alternate, simple, leathery, entire, 12 to 25 x 6 to 12.5 cm, petioled; +flowers small, sessile, white, monoecious, in terminal or axillary panicles, crowded; calyx +short, persistent, the lobes ciliate; petals 4 to 5, ca. 2.5 mm long, oblong, recurved; stamens +8 to 10, free, inserted at base of disk; fruit black, single-seeded drupe, 1.3 cm in diameter, +with scanty flesh; stone crustaceous or bony, 2-valved; seeds (kernels) gibbous, acute at +one end, size of small cherries. Flowers spring; fruits summer. +Germplasm — Reported for the Hindustani Center of Diversity, almondette, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate savanna, slope, and dry deciduous forests. +Distribution — Native to Southeast Asia, mostly India, Burma, and Indochina, especially +in mountainous regions, almondette is widely cultivated throughout India, ascending to 10(X) +m in northwestern India and Nepal, spreading towards Malaya, Thailand, and Yunan.^^^ +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Tropical Dry through Wet Forest Life +Zones, almondette is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 40 dm, annual tem­ +perature of 23 to 25°C, and pH of 5.0 to 6.0. Trees are found in dry deciduous forests. +Within its natural habitat it is a useful tree for covering dry hillsides. +Cultivation — Propagated from seed; not formally cultivated. +Harvesting — Harvested from the wild.^® +Yields and Economics — In Madras, a tree will yield ca.0.4 kg gum/year. Wood is +rather cheap; in 1937, Bombay Rs 25 to 35 per ton, in Orissa, Rs 19 per ton. Fruits are +frequently sold at bazaars in India, at about 4 to 6 annas per It takes 36 kg nuts to +yield 10 kg oil as expressed in India. +Energy — In Tropical Dry Forest near Varanasi, Shorea robusta may be dominant, +followed by Buchanania lanzan, with standing biomass of 26.8 and 8.3 MT/ha and annual +net production of 2.21 and 0.79 MT/ha respectively. Litter amounts to 1.51 MT and 0.58 +MT/ha respectively A seedling in its first year will produce only 0.19 g biomass, compared +to 5.98 g for Butea monosperma, 12.43 g for Areca catechu.^^^ +Biotic factors — Tree attacked by the fungus Marasmius sp. and by the parasitic flowering +plant, Dendrophthoe falcata.^^^ +59 +BUTYROSPERMUM PARADOXUM (Gaertn.f.) Hepper (SAPOTACEAE) +Shea Nut, +Butterseed +Inch: B, parkii +Uses — An important oil-producing tree, it is the source of shea butter, an edible fat or +vegetable butter extracted from the ripe seeds. Natives use shea butter as cooking fat, an +illuminant, a medicinal ointment, dressing for the hair, and for making soap. Shea nut meal +used for hog-feed, having 60% carbohydrate and 12% protein. Gutta-shea is a reddish +exudation obtained by tapping the tree with removal of pieces of bark with a narrow axe. +Latex is removed on the following day, boiled and cleaned of dirt and bark; it is a mixture +of resin and gutta, called “ balata” or “ Red Kano rubber’ Wood is dull red, very heavy, +termite-proof, difficult to work, but takes a good polish and is very durable. Used for wooden +bowls, mortars and pestles; used as firewood, producing great heat and making charcoal. +In Sierra Leone, used for ribs of boats and in marine workshops. Ashes from burning of +wood commonly used as the lye in indigo dyeing. Flowers provide bee nectar. +Folk medicine — Nakanis of West Africa use the bark decoction to bathe children and +as a medicine. On the Ivory Coast, it is used in baths and sitz-baths to facilitate delivery. +Lobis use the leaf decoction as an eye bath. Young leaves are used in steam vapors to +alleviate headache. Oil used as a topical emollient and vehicle for other pharmaceuticals. +Medicinally, butter used for rubbing on rheumatic pains or mixed with other medicines to +replace other oils. Also used both internally and externally on horses for galls and other +sores. Root-bark, boiled and pounded, applied to chronic sores in horses. Crushed bark used +as a remedy for leprosy. Latex is not poisonous, but a decoction of the bark is lethal. Root +mixed with scourings of tobacco as a poison.^’ +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 622 calories, 7.3 g protein, +52.6 g fat, 38.2 g total carbohydrate, 5.6 g fiber, 1.8 g ash, 107 mg Ca, 43 mg P, 3.2 mg +60 Handbook of Nuts +Fe, and 0.56 mg thiamine.®^ The fat contains 45.6% oleic acid, 44.3% stearic acid, 5.5% +linoleic acid. Of the 2 monoglycerides, 82.1% was oleates and 14% linoleates.^^^ Another +report puts it at 5.7% palmitic, 41.0% stearic, 49.0% oleic, and 4.3% linoleic. Allantoin +and its intermediary products constitute 24 to 28% of the total N of a water extract of defatted +shea kernel meal.^* Alpha- and beta-amyrin, basseol, parkeol, and lupeol are also reported. +According to Roche and Michel,the seed protein contains 8.2% arginine, 1.0% cystine, +9.9% leucine, 2.9% phenylalanine, 1.1% tryptophane, and 1.4% valine. +Description — Stout, much-branched tree to 20 m tall; crown spreading, bark usually +gray or blackish, deeply fissured and splitting into squarish or rectangular corky scales; +short-shoots with conspicuous angular leaf-base scars; young shoots, petioles and flower +buds with rusty pubescence. Leaves oblong to ovate-oblong, 10 to 25 cm long, 4.5 to 14 +cm broad, rounded at apex, base acute to broadly cuneate, margin undulate and thickened; +the petioles one-third to one-half the length of lamina; both surfaces either pubescent or +glabrescent, lateral veins 20 to 30 on each side, regularly and closely spaced, slightly arcuate; +leaves reddish when young flowers fragrant, in dense clusters, at tips of branchlets, above +leaves of previous year; pedicels up to 3 cm long, puberulous to densely pubescent; outer +sepals lanceolate, 9 to 14 mm long, 3.5 to 6 mm broad, pubescent or more or less floccose +externally; inner sepals slightly smaller; corolla creamy white, tube 2.5 to 4 mm long, +glabrous or pilose externally, lobes broadly ovate, 7 to 11 mm long, 4.5 to 7 mm broad; +filaments 7 to 12 mm long, anthers more or less lanceolate, up to 4.5 mm long; staminodes +up to 8 mm long; style 8 to 15 mm long. Fruit ellipsoid, greenish, up to 6.5 cm long, 4.5 +cm in diameter, subglabrous or with pubescence persistent in patches, containing a sweet +pulp surrounding the seed. Seed up to 5 cm long, 3.5 cm in diameter, usually solitary, +sometimes up to 3 per fruit, shining dark-brown, with a large white scar on one side. +Germination cryptocotylar.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, shea nut, or cvs thereof, +is reported to tolerate drought, fire, grazing, laterite, savanna, and slope.Several mor­ +phological and physiological forms differ in shape and size of fruits and seeds, and in +chemical analysis of kernels and fruit, thickness of pericarp, and early fruiting period. Besides +the common type, there are two recognized varieties or subspecies: subsp. parkii (G.Don) +Hepper {Butyrospermum parkii (G.Don) Kotschy, Brassia parkii G.Don) is less dense a +plant, with shorter indumentum, smaller flowers, and the style is 8 to 12 mm long; subsp. +niloticum (Kotschy) Hepper has densely ferrugineous parts, with a corolla tube pilose ex­ +ternally, lobes 9.5 to 11 mm long, 6.5 to 7 mm broad, filaments 10 to 12 mm long, and +the style 12 to 15 mm long.^^® +Distribution — Widespread throughout tropical Africa from West Africa (Liberia, Gold +Coast, Nigeria, Togo, Dahomey, Senegal, Sierra Leone) to Sudan and Uganda, south to +eastern Congo. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest +Life Zones, shea nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 25 dm, annual +temperature of 23 to 2TC, and pH of 4.9 to 6.5.®^ Frequent in savanna regions or as scattered +trees in grasslands across central Africa from West Africa to East Africa. Often protected +and preserved in cultivated land. Common on dry laterite slopes, but not in alluvial hollows +or land subject to flooding. Grows from 950 to 1,500 m elevations.^^® +Cultivation — Seeds germinate readily on the ground under natural conditions. Fresh +seed is essential. Seedlings develop a very long taproot, making transplanting hazardous. +Trees grow very slowly from seed, bearing fruit in 12 to 15 years, taking up to 30 years to +reach maturity. Natural propagation is chiefly from root-suckers.^^® +Harvesting — Fruits mostly harvested at end of July, usually during the rainy season. +Shea oil is the native product expressed from kernels in Europe; shea butter is material +prepared by native methods. In West Africa, the preparation of shea butter is woman’s work. +61 +In Nigeria, nuts are collected by one tribe, sold to another, and the butter bartered back. +Preparation of shea butter consists of pounding usually roasted kernels in mortar to a coarse +pulp, and then grinding this into a fine oily paste with chocolate aroma. Tannin present +makes this form inedible. In some areas, this mass is further worked with a little water in +a large pot in the ground, followed by hand-kneading and washing in cold water. From this +the butter is extracted by boiling and skimming; then it is boiled again to purify further, +after which it is transferred to molds. Locally, nuts are boiled before cracking; extraction +is made from the sun-dried kernels. Ordinary oven-drying causes no loss of oil. Clean nuts +may be roasted until the latex coagulates and the dry nuts stored. In other areas, fruits are +spread in the sun until the pulp separates, or they are fermented by being kept moist for +weeks or months in earthenware jars, and then the nuts are subsequently roasted. +Yields and economics — Using native processing approaches, it takes about 4 kg kernels +to yield 1 kg butter. Thoroughly dried kernels represent about one-third the weight of the +fresh nuts. By native standards, a kerosene tin containing about 12.23 kg (27 lb) kernels +yield 3.17 kg (7 lb) shea butter. Kernels contain 45 to 55% by weight of fat, but may be +as high as 60%, and 9% proteins. The Giddanchi type of kernel averages 3.2 to 6 cm long, +yielding 52.4% of fat. The shea butter tree has economic importance as an oil-seed produced +under natural conditions in great abundance in regions where the oil palm does not grow +and in areas which are otherwise unproductive. A large volume of shea nuts is exported +annually from West Africa, mainly to Holland and Belgium, the chief importers. Belgium +imports most of the shea butter. In Uganda, a small local market developed during World +War 11.^^’^""’^"« +Energy — As fuel, the wood gives out great heat. Charcoal is prepared from it in some +districts. +Biotic factors — Where trees are subjected to annual grass-burning, they are frequently +stunted and twisted. The thick corky base gives some protection against fire. Trees are +frequently grazed by wild animals and the sugary pulp is eaten by them, but not the nut of +the fallen fruit. Unripe fruit exudes latex which remains in the ripe nut but disappears from +the ripe pulp. In Senegal, caterpillars of C irina butyrosperm i cause defoliation; dried, these +caterpillars have long been an article of food in Nigerian markets under the name of mone- +mone (Yoruba). Fungi attacking this tree include: A spergillu s fla vu s, A. niger, A. tam arii, +B otryodiplodia theobrom ae, C ephaleuros m y coidea, C ercospora butyrosperm i, F usicladium +butyrosperm i, M eliola butyrosperm i, H elm inthosporium cojfeae, O othyrium butyrosperm i, +and P estalotia h eterospora. Parasitic on the tree are L oranthus dodon aefoliu s, L. globiferus +var. salicifoliu s, and L. rufescens; and F icus may be epiphytic on the tree, causing reduction +in fruit yield. +62 Handbook of Nuts +CALAMUS ROTAN G L. and other species (ARECACEAE) — Rattan Cane, Rotang Cane +Uses — Tender shoots and seed edible. The sweet pulp around the seeds is also edible. +Stems provide drinking water, especially in the rainy season.^'® Sturtevant^*^ describes the +fruit as roundish, large as a hazelnut, and covered with small, shining, imbriate scales. +Natives generally suck out the subacid pulp which surrounds the kernels to quench the thirst. +Sometimes the fruit is pickled with salt and eaten at tea time. Seeds are eaten by aborigines. +Stems and branches form rattan cane of commerce, used as props for crop plants, for +manufacture of furniture, baskets, wicker-work, umbrella ribs, cables, and ropes. Rattan +ropes are used for dragging heavy weights and for tethering wild animals. Cordage and +cables are made by twisting together two or more canes. Canes also are used for building +boats, suspension bridges, and as a substitute for whale-bone. Jungle experts make fire by +rubbing them backwards and forwards as fast as possible under a branch of dry soft wood +in which a hole has been scooped and lined with wooden dust.^^"^ +Folk medicine — Used for abdominal tumors in India,Root given for chronic fevers, +and used as antidote to snake venom. Leaves used in diseases of blood and in biliousness. +Wood is a vermifuge.Serrano,"^*® without mentioning species, cited asthma, diarrhea, +enterosis, rheumatism, and snake-bite as ailments treated with rattan. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit of the figured species (C. ornatus) is reported to contain +79 calories, 79.0 g H2O, 0.6 g protein, 1.2 g fat, 18.6 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 g fiber, +0.6 g ash, 19 mg Ca, 10 mg P, 1.7 mg Fe, 0.06 mg thiamine, 0.01 mg riboflavin, 0.9 mg +niacin, and 5 mg ascorbic acid.®^ +Toxicity — Scrapings from the bark of glossy-coated cane species may contain enough +silica to act as an irritant to the mucous membranes. +Description — Stems scandent or climbing, very slender; to as much as 200 m long. +63 +leaf-sheaths sparingly armed with short, flat spines, glabrous. Leaves 60 to 90 cm long, on +short petioles with small, straight or recurved spines; leaflets numerous, narrowly lanceolate, +20 to 23 cm long, 1.3 to 2 cm broad, median costa unarmed on both surfaces, or armed +beneath only, lateral costa unarmed on both surfaces. Male spadix slender, very long, +branched, whip-like, sparingly spinous; female flowers scattered along slender branches of +spadix; spikelets 1.3 to 2.5 cm long, recurved. Fruit globose to subglobose, very pale, 1.6 +to 1.8 cm in diameter; scales many, in vertical rows, straw-colored. +Germplasm — Reported to tolerate slope and shade, the rattan genus is from the Hin­ +dustani and Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity. It contains ca.300 difficulty distin­ +guishable species of the moister tropics of the Old World (Asia, Africa). Perhaps rattans, +climbing spiny palms, represent 600 species in ca.l5 genera, more used for furniture and +construction than for the nuts. Lapis"^“ discusses the 12 major Philippine species, illustrating +3 species of Calamus. +Distribution — Native to India, Bengal, Assam, and Sri Lanka^^^ (Calamus rotang), +with other species, extending to Borneo, the Philippines. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Tropical Moist through Wet Forest Life +Zones, rattan is reported from areas with annual precipitation of 17.3 to 42.9 dm (mean of +4 cases = 32.1 dm), annual temperature of 23.5 to 27.4°C (mean of 4 cases = 25.7°C), +and pH of 4.5 to 5 (mean of 2 cases = 4.8). Once common in moist localities, in tropical +to subtropical climate, now locally overharvested. Does not tolerate any frost. Apparently +fares better in primary than secondary forest.Young plants thrive in soil containing a +large quantity of leaf mold. Older plants need soil of a more lasting nature. +Cultivation — A quantity of bonemeal and charcoal in the soil may be advantageous.“^ +Young plants thrive in rooting media rich with leaf mold. Older trees need more substantial +soil with ground bone, charcoal nutrients, and plenty of water.Loams are best, clay loams +okay. For seed extraction, the fruits are peeled and fermented in water for ca.24 hr., then +squeezed, after which clean seeds settle to the bottom. These are then removed to dry in +the shade. Then they are stratified or mixed with moist sawdust for several days. To prevent +fungal infestation, seeds are treated with ca.0.5 lb sodium pentachloropentate, and dissolved +in 3 gallons distilled water. Germination starts after 68 to 85 days. Nursery-grown seedlings +or earthballed wild plants, as well as young suckers, can be used as planting stock. Seedlings +15 cm tall are ready for planting, if they have 4 to 5 leaves. Two seedlings are placed in +each hole, 2m x 2m, at the beginning. Fertilization at 6 g per plant 20:10:5 is recom­ +mended.During the first 2 to 3 years, humus mulching encourages growth. At this point, +more light is desirable. Some Borneo farmers, in abandoning their temporary forest food +plots, plant rattans, letting the forest reclaim the plot, returning 7 to 15 years later to harvest +rattan and begin food cropping again. +Harvesting — Some cultivated trees yield usable canes in 6 years. Full production occurs +in 15 years. At this age, canes average about 30 m long, 2.5 cm in diameter. Mature rattans +can be cut at the base and divided into sections 4 to 5 m long. Thereafter, canes can be cut +about every 4 years, from suckers. Canes should be harvested during the dry season, and +dried and processed promptly. Canes are scraped to remove the thin silicious coating, bringing +out its yellowish luster. Canes should then be dried to less than 20% moisture. Kilns at dry +bulb temperatures of ca.65°C, wet bulb temperatures of ca.45°C, will bring moisture contents +to 12 to 14% in ca.5 days. A dryer design is discussed by Serrano.Stain fungi may be +avoided by treatment of 7 pounds sodium pentachlorophenate in 100 gallons water, applied +the same day the canes are cut. Post-powder beetles may be prevented by soaking the poles +for 3 min in 0.5% aqueous solutions of Lindane or Dieldrin. The canes may also be steeped +in a mixture of diesel oil and coconut or palm oil prior to a final drying. +Yields and Economics — Rattan cane is important in India and elsewhere for the man­ +ufacture of cane-bottom chairs, etc. Many species of the large genus are used in various +64 Handbook of Nuts +parts of the world for similar purposes.In the Philippines, the rattan industry employs +10,000 workers. One Philippine joumaP*^ suggested that, already, raw rattan was worth +$50 million (U.S.), with the finished manufactured rattan products worth $1.2 billion. In +the Philippines, in 1977, there was a report of nearly 66 tons split rattan and nearly 4,000,000 +linear meters of unsplit rattan.B y 1983, it was closer to 5,000,000 linear meters."^'® +Among Tagbanua ethnics in the Philippines, rattan collecting returned ca. $1.00 to $5.00/day +whereas agriculture returned closer to $1.00/day."^’^ But in the 1950s and 1960s, a worker +could collect 200 5-m canes a day, while in 1981, 35 to 50 canes was par, each worth little +more than $0.05. +Energy — In Peninsular Malaysia, mean stem lengths of C alam us m anan was only 1.3 +m after 6 years, but the longest stem was ca.l8 m. C alam us caesius can grow as much as +5 to 6 m/year for the first 5 years of planting. In Sabah, the number of aerial stems doubled +each year for the first 3 years in C. caesius, first 4 years for C. t r a c h y l o p h e u s Trial +cultivation"^'^ of C alam us ornatus in the Philippines yielded canes less than 2 m long, not +suggesting much biomass potential. Rejects and prunings might be useful for fuel. +Biotic factors — Rattan plants are attacked by the fungi C atacaum ella calam icola, +D oratom yces tenuis, and Sphaerodothis coimbatorica,^^^ Undesirable stains are caused by +C eratocystis an d D iplodia. +65 +CANARIUM INDICUM L. (BURSERACEAE) — Java-Almond, Kanari, Kenari +Syn.: Canarium amboinense Hochr., Canarium commune L., Canarium mehenbeth- +ene Gaertn., Canarium moluccanum Bl., Canarium subtruncatum Engl., Can­ +arium shortlandicum Rech., Canarium polyphyllum Krause, Canarium +grandistipulatum Lauterbach, and Canarium nungi Guillaumin. +Uses — Seeds are highly regarded in Melanesia as a food, a delicacy, and in pastries as +a substitute for almonds. Mature fruits, dried over fires, are an important stored food in the +Solomon Islands. Nuts are ground and added to grated taro and coconut c re a m .A n +emulsion of seeds is used in baby-foods. Oil from the seeds is used as a substitute for +coconut oil for cooking and illumination. Resin from the stems (Getah kanari) has the scent +of eugenol and is used in printing inks and varnishes. It is the source of a Manila elemi, a +resin, used as an incense and fixative in the perfume industry, and for varnishes. Oil derived +from the resin is also employed in soap and cosmetics. Old stems are used as fuel and when +burning lime. Wood may be used in canoe building and paddles are made from the buttresses. +Parts of the plant are used to make cloth and to make moth-repelling bookcases. The tree +is planted as a shade-tree in nutmeg plantations and as a road-side tree.^^® +Folk medicine — Resin is applied to indolent ulcers.The fruit is laxative. Medicinally +(in Java), it is used as an incense for sick persons to keep the atmosphere clean. +Chemistry — Seeds contain 3.8% moisture, 19.6% protein, 72.8% fat, and 3.8% ash.®^ +The oil contains 10.2% stearic, 30.5% palmitic, 39.9% oleic, 18.7% linoleic, and 0.7% +linolenic acids. The oleoresin which oozes from the trunk contains 10.4% essential oil, +81.8% resin, 3.7% water solubles, and 2.5% water. The essential oil contains ca. 34% +anethole and a small quantity of terpenes.^®’^*"* +Description — Tree grows up to 40 m, to 1 m in diameter, with buttresses; branchlets +7 to 13 mm thick, glabrescent. Leaves are compound, 3-8 pairs of leaflets, glabrous, with +66 Handbook of Nuts +persistent ovate to oblong stipules 1.5 to 2 cm long and 1.2 to 1.4 cm wide, pulverulent to +glabrous; leaflets oblong-obovate to oblong-lanceolate, 7 to 35 cm long and 3.5 to 16 cm +wide, on long slender petiolules (to 3 cm long); blades herbaceous to coriaceous, the base +oblique, rounded to broadly cuneate, the apex gradually to bluntly acuminate, margin entire; +inflorescences terminal, many-flowered, 15 to 40 cm long, minutely tomentose. Flowers +tomentose, male ones subsessile, about 1 cm long, females short-stalked, up to 1.5 cm long, +with a concave receptacle; calyx in male flowers 5 to 7 mm long, in females 7 to 10 mm; +stamens glabrous, in male flowers free; in females adnate to disk; pistil in male flowers +minute or none, in female glabrous; fruiting clusters with up to 30 fruits; fruits ovoid, round +to slightly triangular in cross-section, 3.5 to 6 cm long and 2 to 4 cm in diameter, glabrous; +pyrene rounded triangular in cross-section, smooth except the 3 more-or-less acute ribs at +base and apex; lids 3 to 4 mm thick; seeds usually 1, the sterile cells slightly reduced. +Flowers mainly October to December fruits July to December. +Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian Center of Diversity, Java +almond, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH.®^ Several races are cultivated in +Melanesia, varying in form and size of fruits. Two botanical varieties are recognized: (1) +var. indicum , with branchlets up to 13 mm thick; stipules up to 6 by 5 cm, dentate; leaves +up to 7 jugate; leaflets up to 28 by 11 cm, herbaceous; and fruits up to 6 x 3 cm. This is +the more widespread variety and the more cultivated form. (2) var. platycerioideu m Leen- +houts, with branchlets up to 2.5 cm thick; stipules sometimes inserted on the bases of the +petiole only; leaves 5 to 8 Jugate, 80 to 135 cm long; leaflets inequilateral, ovate, 25 to 35 +X 13 to 16 cm; fruits 6 by 3.5 to 4 cm. Found only on New Guinea up to altitudes of 30 +178, 179,278 +m. +Distribution — Native to Moluccas (Temate, Sula, Ceram, Ambon, Kai), the North +Celebes (where it may be naturalized), and Indonesia (New Guinea, New Britain, New +Ireland, Solomon Islands, and New Hebrides). +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest +Life Zones, Java almond is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 11 to 24 dm (mean +of cases = 18), annual temperature of 24 to 2 T C (mean of 3 cases = 25.5), and pH of +5.3 to 8.1 (mean of 2 cases == 6.7).^^ Java almond is found in rain-forest at low altitudes, +rarely native above 250 m. However, it is planted up to 600 m or more.^^® +Cultivation — Sprouted seeds or larger seedlings are transplanted. +Harvesting — Fruiting peaks at August to October and February to April in Santa Cruz, +Solomon Islands, but fruits are available year-round. In the Solomon Islands, where Can- +arium is ‘’probably the most important economic tree species” , the plants are usually +accepted as wild forest species, exploited by gathering, on the basis of recognized individual +ownership. +Yields and economics — Large fruited forms or species on Santa Cruz are said to yield +fewer fruits than the smaller fruited forms. +Energy — Seed oil and resin might be viewed for energy potential, over and above the +fuel wood. The resin was used for illumination in the Solomon Islands. The abundance of +Canarium on Ndenia Island may explain why A gathis resin was not exploited. +Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack Java almond: A edicium pu l- +neyensis, M eliola canarii, O udesm ansiella canarii, Skierka canarii, and U stilina zonata. +Seeds dispersed by fruit bats (P ter opus). +67 +CANARIUM OVATUM Engl. (BURSERACEAE) — Pili Nut, Philippine Nut +Uses — The pulp is edible when cooked and yields a cooking oil. The nut or kernel is +also edible and excellent after roasting. It also yields a good cooking oil.^ Menninger^®^ +describes this as the “ most important of all the nuts in the world to the millions of people +who depend on it for food.” Abarquez' says pili is second only to cashew as a food nut in +the Philippines, where it is considered superior to almonds. The nuts have been used to +adulterate chocolate.This species is one source of the commercial resin traded as Manila +elemi. Spaniards repaired their ships, in colonial days, with gum elemi. Manila elemi is a +yellowish-greenish-white, sticky, soft, opaque, fragrant oil mass which gradually becomes +hard when exposed. It is a source of a kind of paper for window-panes as a substitute for +glass, and is used in the preparation of medicinal ointment. It is an important ingredient in +plastics, printing inks for lithographic works, perfumes, and plasters. This resin gives tough­ +ness and elasticity to lacquer, varnish, and paint products. Locally, it is used to caulk boats +and as an illuminant for native torches. Recently, the possibility of extracting fuel from +resin has proved enticing, suggesting the possibility of driving a car “ run by a tree.“ ' +According to Garcia, pili plantations, in pure stand, can be interplanted with cassava, ginger, +papaya, pineapple, coffee, cacao, bananas, and taro. +Folk medicine — The “ elemi” was once used as an ointment for healing wounds. +Filipinos use the crushed emulsion of the kernels as a substitute for milk for infants. Uncooked +nuts are purgative. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 699 to 714 calories, 12.2 +to 15.6 g protein, 73.2 to 75.9 g fat, 6.0 to 10.8 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 to 3.5 g fiber, +3.0 to 3.6 g ash, 130 to 180 mg Ca, 71 to 591 mg P, 2.9 to 4.8 mg Fe, 3.2 to 3.3 mg Na, +521 to 537 mg K, 26 to 35 |xg beta-carotene equivalent. 0.75 to 1.04 mg thiamine, 0.07 +to 0.13 mg riboflavin, 0.44 to 0.58 mg niacin, and 0 to 25 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Campbell +reports the kernel contains 74% fat, 12% protein, and 5% starch.^ Rosengarten reports +71.1% fat, 11.4% protein, and 8.4% carbohydrates.^®^ +Description — Buttressed dioecious trees to 20 m tall, 40 cm DBH, leaves alternate, +compound, with 5 to 7 leaflets each 10 to 20 cm long; inflorescences and axillary terminal, +many-flowered, flowers yellowish, fragrant, ca.l cm long; fruits ellipsoid to oblong, 3 to +7 cm long, with thin, oily pulp, greenish, turning black when ripe; seed solitary, triangular +in cross-section with pointed ends, thin, hard shell and a single large kernel. +Germplasm — Reported from the Philippine Center of Diversity, the pili nut, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate slope and strong winds. Campbell says no cultivars are +described,^ but Menninger says 75 kinds grow in enormous quantities from Africa through +India to northern Australia, Malaya, and in the Pacific Islands. Menninger may mean the +genus rather than the species. +Distribution — Endemic to the primary forests of Luzon at low and medium altitudes +in the Philippines; widely distributed, yet little-known.^ Introduced successfully into El +Zamorano and Lancetilla, Honduras. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Rain through Tropical Moist +to Wet Forest Life Zones, pili nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 80 +dm, annual temperature of 23 to 28°C, and pH of 5.0 to 7.0. Best adapted to the hot, wet, +tropics. +Cultivation — Generally grown from seed; superior selections may be grafted. It can be +marcotted and budded as well. In the Philippines, it is often planted between rows of coconut. +Seedlings, wrapped in banana sheath or bark, are transported carefully to the transplant site +at the onset of the rainy season. Spacing is generous, 12 to 15 m apart for densities of only +40 to 50/ha. +Harvesting — Vegetatively propagated pilis may bear at age 7 to 8. Rosengarten^®^ says +68 Handbook of Nuts +female trees start bearing at age 6, but full production is not reached until 12 to 15. From +seed, it takes 7 to 10 years to fruiting, 12 to 13 according to Garcia.*®^ Fruits are usually +shaken or knocked from the tree. Fresh nuts do not store well, becoming rancid in weeks, +if not roasted. Abarquez* states, “ Integrating resin tapping with nut production, that is, the +possibility of getting 2 products without disabling the tree, can be studied. As practiced, it +is observed that flogging, girdling, or wounding the bark of trees on the lower trunk part +usually increase the production of fruits in some trees like mango . . . Controlling the +downward translocation of carbohydrates and other hormones from the canopy to the root +system, by wounding the bark on the trunk, would induce the production of flower hormones, +and consequently, fruits. Timing the tapping activities so that it complements with the natural +budding and fruiting season would give us the desired result.” +Yields and economics — Sometimes trees may yield as much as 33 kg nuts. Garcia*®^ +puts peak yield at 2.5 MT/ha/yr. Other species can yield nearly 50 kg resin per year. Manila +exported more than 1000 MT as long ago as 1913. But Abarquez^ shows only a little more +than a ton around 1975. In 1950, the Philippines had more than 8,000 ha planted to pili, +reduced to ca. 2,500 by the end of 1976. +Energy — If the seeds were copiously produced, their 75% oil could be viewed as an +oil source. Other species of Canarium exude valuable resins “ which could be a promising +alternative for the oil industry.Such species are said to average 45 kg resin per year. +But Roecklein and Leung^^^ put yields of C. luzonicum resin at only 4 to 5 kg/yr. The shells +of the nuts are said to be an excellent fuel, a handful enough to cook a simple dish. Garcia^®^ +describes the wood of the pili as an excellent firewood. +Biotic factors — Campbell^ states that pests and diseases have not been described. +69 +CARYA ILLINOENSIS (Wangenh.) K. Koch (JUGLANDACEAE) — Pecan +Syn.: Caryapecan (Marsh.) Engl, and Graebn., Carya oliviformis Nutt., and Hicoria +pecan Britt. +Uses — Kernels of nuts eaten raw, roasted, or salted and used in candies, confections, +ice cream, mixed nuts, and for flavoring in baking and cookery. Pecan oil, expressed from +kernels, is edible and sold for the drug, essential oil, and cosmetic trade. Lumber is hard, +brittle, not strong, but is occasionally used for agricultural implements, wagons, and for +fuel.^^® More recently, pecan timber has been used for veneer and lumber, flooring, and +still for firewood. Smith^*® notes that “ the pecan has great possibilities as a shade (and +timber) tree in a large area where it cannot be a commençai dependence, but may produce +an occasional crop.” Doubtless, the deep-rooted pecan can contribute to erosion control. +To quote S m i t h , “During the regime of the tribal leaders in the old Seminole Nation in +Seminole County, Oklahoma, they had a law that fined a person five dollars or more for +mutilating a pecan tree. Yet some people call the Indian a savage. Whoever calls the Indian +a savage should go look at the gullies we white men have made in Oklahoma where the +Indian made none!"' Southerners are intercropping pecans with cattle successfully. Pecan +has been described as the number three hardwood in the U.S., behind walnut and black +cherry. +Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, pecan is a folk remedy for blood ailments, +dyspepsia, fever, flu, hepatitis, leucorrhea, malaria, and stomach-ache.^^ +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 711 to 718 calories, 9.5 +to 9.7 g protein, 73.7 to 75.3 g fat, 13.4 to 15.1 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 to 2.4 g fiber, +1.6 to 1.7 g ash, 75 to 76 mg Ca, 299 to 334 mg P, 2.5 mg Fe, 0 to 3 mg Na, 624 to 1499 +mg K, 20 to 82 jxg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.74 to 0.89 mg thiamine, 0.11 to 0.13 mg +riboflavin, 0.93 mg niacin, and 2.1 mg ascorbic acid. Leaves and leaf stalks contain a +phytosterol similar to squalene, capric-, lauric-, myristic-, palmitic-, stearic-, arachidic-, +oleic-, linoleic-, and linolenic-acids. Tannins containing phloroglucin and catechin have +been identified; also inositol and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid. The bark contains azaleatin +(quercetin-5-methyl ether) (Ci6Hi207*H20), and caryatin (quercetin-3,5-dimethylether) +70 Handbook of Nuts +(C,7H,407).'^^ According to Hilditch and Williams,'^* the component acids of the seed fats +are 3.3 to 7% palmitic-, 1 to 5.5% stearic-, 51 to 88% oleic-, 14 to 38% linoleic-, and I +to 2% linolenic-acids. +Toxicity — Langhans, Hedin, and Graves'^^ report that leaves and fruits contain juglone, +a substance toxic to Fusicladium effusum at concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/m€ (roughly +0.1 ppm). They also report linalool as fungitoxic. Schroeder and Storey^^^ report aflatoxins +in pecans with sound shells. The mycotoxin zearalenone was extracted from kernels with +sound shells after 28 days. For reasons unclear to this author, Hager’s Handbook*®^ calls it +a poisonous plant. The pollen is allergenic. +Description — Deciduous tree, 33 to 60 m tall, with massive trunk to 3.5 m in diameter, +buttressed at base, crown round-topped; bark light-brown tinged red, twigs with loose pale- +reddish tomentum, becoming glabrous or puberulent, lenticels numerous, oblong, and orange; +leaves compound, 30 to 50 cm long, petioles glabrous or pubescent; leaflets lanceolate to +oblong-lanceolate, more-or-less falcate, long-pointed, doubly serrate, 10 to 20 cm long, 2.5 +to 7.5 cm broad, veins conspicuous; staminate flowers in slender clustered aments 7.5 to +12.5 cm long, from axillary buds of previous year’s growth, sessile or nearly so, yellow- +green, hirsute on outer surface, bract oblong, narrowed at ends, slightly 4-angled, with +yellow pubescence; fruits in clusters of 3 to 11, pointed at apex, rounded at base, 4-winged +and angled, 1.5 to 6.5 cm long, up to 2.5 cm in diameter, dark-brown, with yellow scales; +husk splitting at maturity to nearly the base, often persistent on tree after nut fallen out; nut +ovoid to ellipsoidal, rather cylindrical toward apex, rounded at base, reddish-brown with +irregular black markings; shell thin with papery partitions; seed sweet, red-brown, kernel +separating rather readily. Flowers early spring; fruits fall.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, pecan, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH, mycobacteria, salt, slope, smog, and weeds.Many +selected cvs have been made, some of the “ paper-shell” or “ thin-shell” cvs include: ‘Curtis’, +‘Frotscher’, ‘Moneymaker’, ‘Pabst’, ‘Schley’, and ‘Stuart’. (2n = 32.)^^^ +Distribution — Native to the valley of the Mississippi River from southern Indiana and +Illinois, western Kentucky and Tennessee, to Mississippi and Louisiana, west to Texas; +reappearing in mountains of northern Mexico. Largely cultivated in southeastern U.S., most +abundant and of its largest size in southern Arkansas and eastern Texas. Improved cvs are +widely cultivated. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Thom to Moist through Subtropical Dry to +Moist Forest Life Zones, pecan is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 13 dm +(mean of 11 cases = 8.7), annual temperature of 9 to 21 °C (mean of 11 cases = 16.5), +and pH of 5.0 to 8.2 (mean of 9 cases = 6.4). Low rich ground along streams is favorite +habitat, especially in fertile soil, rich in humus, on land that has been under cultivation for +many years. Quite hardy in the north, it has been successfully planted up to the 43rd parallel. +While favored by alluvial soils, pecan is by no means restricted thereto.^*® Thrives on a +variety of soils, from sandy soils of acid reaction to heavy soil with alkaline reaction, and +gradations between these. All soils should be well-drained and pervious to water. Pecan is +deep-rooted and requires plenty of water, but will not tolerate water-logged soils.Relative +humidity above 80% prevents effective pollination. Pecans require 150 to 210 frost-free +days, but have not fared well in the tropics. Madden, Brison, and McDanieP^^ suggest a +possible chill requirement of 750 hr below 45°F (7°C). Hardy to Zone 5.^"^^ +Cultivation — Pecans do not come true from seeds and are difficult to start from cuttings. +Therefore, propagation is mainly by budding and grafting, in order to perpetuate desirable +varieties. After soil with the proper requirements for pecan production has been selected, +young trees are set on 11-m squares; in Texas, squares up to 23 m may be used, especially +on river valley soils. In some areas 75 to 1(X) cm annual rainfall may be sufficient, but +usually much more is required. Where the rainfall is abundant, growth of trees is rapid and +71 +crowding may be a problem. Trees usually do not begin bearing as early in humid areas +because of greater rate of growth. In western pecan orchards, trees are used in the manner +of interplanted fruit trees since the trees do not grow so fast and cvs may be selected that +are prolific at a relatively young age and size. Western cvs apparently lend themselves to +dwarfing by pruning, and can be kept relatively small, preventing crowding. Unlike most +trees, pecans do not show a deficiency of moisture by wilting of leaves or shoots. This may +be due to the deep taproot which absorbs sufficient moisture from the subsoil to prevent +wilting, but when weeds and other plants growing near pecan trees show signs of water +deficiency, water should be applied. Trees are often intercropped with cotton, com, or +peaches until trees come into bearing. Planting of trees originally varies from 11 to 33 m, +but after a first thinning in 12 to 15 years and a second at the end of 20 to 25 years, trees +will be spaced 23 to 66 m apart. Nursery trees usually planted in commercial orchards when +rootstocks are 4 to 6 years old and budded or grafted trees are 1 or 2 years old, although +older trees are used sometimes. Pecan trees are set in both large and small holes. In heavy +soils, holes about 1 m in diameter at top give better results. In lighter soils, post-holes have +proven satisfactory. For larger trees, larger holes should be used to accomodate the larger +root systems. Trees should be planted about 5 cm deeper than they were in the nursery. +After they are set, tops should be cut back and the trunks loosely wrapped for a distance +of 30 to 45 cm from ground with burlap of heavy paper, which is tied loosely. Pecan trees +are very slow to develop new roots after transplanting and should be supplied with adequate +moisture during the first summer to help establish the root system. Young trees must be +protected from sunscald and winter injury. Pmning and training trees to proper shape is +essential. Young pecan orchards require more frequent cultivation than older orchards, +because older trees tend to hold weed growth in check by shading and by competition for +moisture and nutrients. Disking or plowing should be frequent enough to prevent rank growth +of weeds or grass, the number of cultivations depending on the fertility of the soil. If an +orchard is on land subject to overflow and bad erosion, it may be sodded with some suitable +grass; during the growing season, it may be mowed, or sheep and cattle may be allowed to +graze the land to keep down the vegetation. Where soils are poor, intercropping with legumes +and adding fertilizer may be useful. +Harvesting — Pecan nuts are harvested when fully ripe and coming out of hulls with +little beating of branches. From bloom to harvest varies from 5 to 6 months. Frequently, +the harvest of nuts is facilitated by the use of sheets spread under trees beyond the spread +of branches. Such sheets are usually made of heavy cotton sheeting in rectangular pieces +ca. 5 X 10 m. Nuts are stored in bags or bins after being cured on trays with hardware +cloth bottoms. They trays are placed across supports to allow air circulation. Nuts may also +be cured in small burlap bags, provided the bags are arranged so air circulates freely around +them. Bags should be turned upside-down occasionally to insure more uniform curing. Much +of the work of curing can be eliminated if nuts are allowed to cure in husk before harvesting. +Nuts may be stored 2 years without appreciable deterioration, if stored at a temperature of +0°C to 3.5°C. They should be stored as soon as curing is completed, since their quality is +impaired at ordinary temperatures, long before rancidity is apparent. +Yields and economics — Trees 8 to 10 years old yield from 2 to 12 (to 350) kg per tree. +Improved cvs often yield greater amounts. Trees yielding 1500 to 1600 nuts per tree may +have yields of 1,000 to 1,200 kg/ha. As Rosengarten^®^ notes, most edible nuts are essentially +one-state crops: almonds, pistachios, and walnuts are produced in California; filberts in +Oregon, and macadamia nuts in Hawaii. The pecan, on the other hand, is a multi-state crop, +stretching across the country from the Southeast to the Southwest throughout some 20 states. +U.S. production is tabulated in Table 1. By 1981, a record harvest of nearly 175,000 tons +was reported. +Energy — Even native pecans (up to 75% oil) are estimated to yield 750 to 800 kg/ha +72 Handbook of Nuts +Table 1 +UTILIZED PECAN PRODUCTION TONS +(ap p rox.) +1978 1979 1980 +Alabama 11,000 2,000 10,000 +Arkansas 1,600 750 450 +Florida 2,100 1,300 3,000 +Georgia 67,500 32,500 52,500 +Louisiana 4,500 8,000 7,000 +Mississippi 5,000 1,250 2,250 +New Mexico 7,500 7,350 7,350 +North Carolina 2,000 650 850 +Oklahoma 7,750 5,000 1,750 +South Carolina 3,000 1,000 1,100 +Texas 13,000 45,500 5,500 +Total U.S. Production 124,950 105,300 91,750 +After Rosengarten, Jr., F. The Book of Edible Nuts, Walker and +Company, New York, 1984, 384. +in T e x a s .Cultiváis may exceed 1000 kg. Prunings and thinnings make very good fuel +wood. Perhaps even the leaves could be investigated as sources of lauric acid, juglone +(herbicide), leaf protein, with the residues going into ethanol production. +Biotic factors — Squirrels may destroy large quantities of nuts during the season, since +they start feeding on them while the nuts are immature and continue until the nuts are +harvested. They also gnaw the bark off new shoots so that they die. Squirrel guards on trees +may effectively control squirrel damage. Because pecan trees are not sufficiently self- +pollinating, various cvs should be interplanted. Orchards should be laid out and cvs planted +to allow pollination to occur in the direction of prevailing wind. Although the pollinating +CVS need be only about 100 m from female trees, they are often alternated with each other. +Phillips et al.^^^ give an interesting illustrated account of the insects and diseases of the +pecans. The following are known to cause diseases of pecans: A grobacterium tum efaciens, +A rticularía quercina, A spergillus chevalieri, B otryosphaeria bergeneriana, B. ribis, C ar- +yospora m inor, C ephaleuros virescens, C ercospora fusca, C ladosporium effusum, Conio- +thyrium caryogenum , E lsinoe randii, Eutypa heteracantha, G lom erella cingulata, G nom onia +caryar, G. dispora, G. nerviseda, H elicobasidium purpureum , M icrocera coccophila, M i- +crosphaera alni. M icrostrom a ju glan dis, M ycosphaerella caryigena, M . dendroides, M y- +riangium duriaei, M . tuberculans, N em atospora coryli, P ellicu laria koleroga, P estalotia +uvicola, P h yllosticta convexula, Phym atotrichum om nivorum , P h ysalospora fu sca, P. rhod- +ina, P hytophthora cactorum , Schizophyllum com mune, Septoria caryae, and Trichothecium +roseum.'^'^^^'^''^ Pecan is attacked by the parasitic flowering plant, mistletoe, P horadendron +serrulata. Insect pests attacking pecan include: M yzocallisfum ipennellus (black pecan aphid), +C hrysom phalus obscurus (obscure scale), C urculio varyae (pecan weevil), H yphantria cunea +(fall webworm), Synanthedon scitulae (pecan borer), A crobasis caryae (pecan nut-case +borer), A crobasis p a llio lella (pecan leaf-case borer), L aspeyresia caryana (hickory shuck +worm), C oleoph orae caryaefoliella (pecan cigar-case borer), G retchena bolliana (pecan bud +moth). P hylloxera devastatrix (leaf and stem galls), Strym on m elinus (cotton square borer). +Nematodes isolated from pecan trees include: Caconem a radidicola, D itylenchus interm e­ +dins, D olichodoru s heterocephalus, H eterodera m arioni, M eloidogyne spp., P ratylenchus +penetrans, R adopholus sim ilis, and Xiphinem a americanum^'^^^ +73 +CARYOCAR AMYGDALIFERUM Mutis (CARYOCARACEAE) Mani, Achotillo, Cagui, +Chalmagra +Uses — Fruits edible, said to taste like almonds. Pulp of fruit is also used as a fish poison. +According to the NAS,^^^ Caryocar kernels are said to be the best edible nuts in the tropics. +Oil used for cooking in tropical America. +Folk medicine — Fruits are used as a medicine for leprosy. +Chemistry — Wood, possibly of this species, possibly of C. brasiliense, contains 1.5 +to 1.8% essential oil. +Description — Trees to 55.0 m tall, the trunk buttressed up to 3.0 m, the young branches +sparsely puberulous-glabrescent. Leaves trifoliolate; petioles 2.5 to 11.0 cm long, glabres- +cent, terete; leaflets shortly petiolulate, the terminal petiolule 5.0 to 7.0 mm long, the lateral +petiolules slightly shorter than the terminal one, the petiolules sparsely puberulous, shallowly +canaliculate; the laminas elliptic to oblong, slightly asymmetrical, acuminate at apex, the +acumen 1.0 to 1.5 cm long, cuneate to subcuneate and often markedly unequal at base, +unevenly coarsely serrate at margins, glabrous on both surfaces, the terminal lamina 7.5 to +12.0 cm long, 2.5 to 5.5 cm broad, the lateral laminas slightly smaller than the terminal +one; primary veins 10 to 11 pairs, plane to prominulous beneath; venation prominulous +beneath; stipels to 5.0 mm long, ellipsoid, inflated, persistent. Peduncles ca. 3.5 to 7.0 cm +long, glabrous. Inflorescences clustered racemes, the rachis tomentose, the pedicels elongate, +ebracteolate. Calyx cupuliform, ca. 6.0 mm long, glabrous on exterior, the lobes 5, small, +rounded, the margins ciliate. Corolla lobes 5, ca. 2.0 to 2.5 cm long, oblong, glabrous, +greenish-yellow. Stamens numerous, ca. 200, the filaments shortly united at base in a ring, +but into groups, white, sparsely pubescent, the apical portion tuberculate, the innermost +filaments much shorter than the rest, the anthers small. Ovary globose, glabrous on exterior, +4-locular. Styles 4, filamentous, shorter than filaments. Fruit globose-ellipsoid, ca. 5.5 cm +long, exocarp glabrous, smooth; pericarp thick, fleshy; mesocarp and endocarp enveloping +the seed to form an ovoid stone; the exterior of mesocarp not seen, the interior enveloping +the endocarp tubercules; endocarp with numerous flattened tubercules ca. 5.0 mm long, and +a hard woody interior ca. 1.0 mm thick, glabrous within. +Germplasm — From the South American Center of Diversity, achotillo has been reported +to tolerate acid soils.Regrettably, this has been confused in the literature, due to ortho­ +graphic similarities, with Peruvian C. amygdaliforme Don. (almendro blanco). The mani +has inflated stipels to 5 mm long, the Peruvian species lacks stipels. +Distribution — Native to the forests of the Magdalena River Valley of Colombia. +Sturtevant^^^ assigns it to Ecuador and says it is the “ almendrón” of Mariquita. +Ecology — Tropical forest tree, thriving in rich loam in river valleys.Duke®^ reports +the species from Tropical Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones, annual precipitation of 23 to 40 +dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 5.0 to 5.3. +Cultivation — Not known in cultivation.^^® +Harvesting — Fruits collected in season for food and medicinal purposes by natives. +Yields and economics — Of limited use by natives in Colombia. +Energy — Like other tropical tree species, this one probably can produce 25 MT biomass +per year. Prunings could be used for energy production. +Biotic factors — No serious pests or diseases reported for this tree.^^® Probably bat +pollinated. +74 Handbook of Nuts +CARYOCAR NUCIFERUM L. (CARYOCARACEAE) — Suari Nut, Butternut +Uses — This is probably one of the most popular edible nuts in the genus Caryocar. +Without voucher material, we can only guess to which species the various data refer. After +reading Prance and da Silva’s excellent monograph,this author has done his best. Certainly +this is the largest, if not the oiliest and tastiest, of the nuts in the genus. The timber of the +roots is used for making crooks in boats and for canoes. +Folk medicine — The bark of this or one of the species confused with this is considered +diuretic and febrifuge. +Chemistry — Apparently all the species have a high oil content in the pericarp and kernel. +The pericarp oil is suggestive of palm oil.‘^^ +Description — Large tree to 45.0 m tall, young branches glabrous. Leaves trifoliolate, +petioles 4.0 to 9.0 (to 15.0) cm long, terete to flattened, glabrous; leaflets petiolulate, +terminal petiolule 7.0 to 20.0 mm long, lateral petiolules about equal to the center one; +petiolules glabrous, shallowly canaliculate; laminas elliptic, acuminate at apex, acumen 5.0 +to 15.0 mm long, entire to weakly crenate at margins, rounded to subcuneate at base, +glabrous on both surfaces, terminal lamina 12.0 to 30.0 cm long, 6.0 to 18.0 cm broad, +lateral laminas equal or slightly smaller than terminal one, primary veins 8 to 13 pairs, plane +above, prominent beneath; venation prominulous beneath; stipels absent. Peduncles 6.0 to +10.0 cm long, glabrous, sparsely lenticellate towards base. Inflorescences of clustered ra­ +cemes, rachis 1.0 to 4.5 cm long, glabrous; flowering pedicels 4.0 to 6.0 cm long, 5.0 to +8.0 cm thick, glabrous, ebracteolate. Calyx campanulate, ca. 2.0 cm long, glabrous on +exterior, lobes 5, rounded. Corolla ca. 6.0 to 7.0 cm long, elliptic, glabrous, deep-red on +exterior, paler within. Stamens extremely numerous, over 700, filaments caducous as a unit, +united at base up to 2.0 mm, dividing into fused groups before becoming free above, outer +ones 7.0 to 8.5 cm long including base, yellow, apical portion tuberculate, with many shorter +inner filaments from 3.5 cm long and of all intermediate sizes, inner filaments tuberculate +at apex only, anthers small. Ovary globose, 4-locular, glabrous on exterior. Styles 4, fila­ +mentous, 8.0 to 9.0 cm long, glabrous. Fruit subglobose to sublobate, to 15.0 cm long, +exocarp glabrous, lenticellate; pericarp very thick and fleshy, detaching from mesocarp and +endocarp; mesocarp and endocarp enveloping seed to form a large stone ca. 7.0 cm broad, +5.0 cm long, mesocarp becoming lignified and hard, the exterior undulate with short, rounded +tubercules; endocarp with tuberculate exterior and hard, thin, woody interior ca. 1.0 mm +thick; with 1 to 2 subreniform seeds only developing. +Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity. The tuberculate +large fruits and large flowers are larger than those of any other Caryocar. +Distribution — Native of the primary forests of the Guianas and adjacent Venezuela and +Brazil. Recently collected in Panama and Choco, Colombia. Apparently abundant in Choco. +Cultivated in the West Indies, and grown in botanical gardens in Nigeria, Singapore, and +Sri Lanka. +Ecology — According to MacMillan, the tree grows well in the moist low country of +Sri Lanka, especially in rich deep loams or alluvial soils. +Cultivation and Energy — No data available. +Harvesting — According to Burkill,^^ it may fruit at 5 years of age, but usually takes 2 +to 3 times as long. Introduced into Singapore in 1899, it did not fruit until 20 years old, +but flowered years before. At Peradeniya and Henaratgoda, where it was introduced in 1891, +the trees had not fruited when MacMillan‘S^ went to press, though the Peradeniya specimen +started flowering after 19 years. These do not seem to be much more precocious than Brazil +nuts. However, MacMillan mentions another specimen from British Guiana which fruited +6 years from planting. +Yields and economics — The nut is exported commercially from the Guianas. +Biotic factors — Probably bat pollinated. +75 +CARYOCAR VILLOSUM (Aubl.) Pers., CARYO CAR BRASILIENSE Camb., and CARY- +OCAR C O R IA C E U M Wittmack (CARYOCARACEAE) — Pequi +Uses — Several species go under the common name pequi and pequia, said to be one of +the best edible nuts in the tropics. But Sturtevant^^^ calls it is a sort of chestnut eaten in +times of famine. C a ryo ca r has several nut-bearing species. These are somewhat more prom­ +ising because some species are smaller and easier to harvest. The orange-sized fruit contains +an oily pulp and kernel that are used for food. So far, they have been employed only in +home cooking. The fruit is made into a tasty liqueur, well known in Brazil, especially in +the State of Mato Grosso. There is both the fruit oil and the kernel oil. After refining the +taxonomy of those species called Pequi and Pequia, Prance and da Silva^^ state that the +fruit of C. villosum (a huge tree) has an edible pulp and edible cotyledons. The pulp is most +often eaten and has a faint smell of rancid butter. It is also used to produce an edible oil. +Wood of C. villosum is so durable as to be used in boat-building and in heavy construction. +Brazilian Indians obtain a yellow dye from C. brasiliense.^^ +Folk medicine — The bark of this or one of the species confused with this is considered +diuretic and febrifuge.^* +Chemistry — According to Hager’s Handbook,the wood of C. brasilien se (or C. +am ygdaliferum or C. glabrum ) contains 1.5 to 1.8% essential oil. According to a report +quoted in Burkill,^^ the inner part of the fruit-wall contains a reddish-orange oil, up to 72.3%. +The kernel contains 61.4% (ZMB) or 45% (APB) oil, composed largely of glyceride esters +76 Handbook of Nuts +of palmitic and oleic acids. Ripe fruits must be treated as soon as harvested, or enzymes +will induce the development of free fatty acids. Lane'^^ reported a comparison with Malayan +palm oil: +Palm oil (%) Pequi pericarp I Pequi kernel (%) +Myristic 1.5 +2.5 1.5 +48.4 +Palmitic 40.8 41.2 +Stearic 3.6 0.8 0.9 +Oleic 45.2 53.9 46.0 +Linoleic 7.9 2.6 3.3 +Hilditch and Williams'^^ present somewhat different data. The fruit-coat fat of Caryocar +villosum is interesting, because its fatty acids closely resemble those of palm oils, namely: +myristic 1.8, palmitic 47.3, stearic 1.7, oleic 47.3, linoleic 1.9%. It contained only 2% of +fully saturated components (tripalmitin), thus differing somewhat from palm oils of similar +fatty acid composition. No tristearin was detected in the completely hydrogenated fat and +the components of the fat (in addition to 2% tripalmitin) were therefore 42% oleodipalmitins +and 56% palmitodioleins — an instance of pronounced “ even distribution.” Intensive crys­ +tallization of the pequia fruit-coat fat yielded five fractions very rich in oleodisaturated +glycerides and three more soluble fractions which consisted largely of diunsaturated gly­ +cerides. Oleodipalmitin was isolated separately from each of the five fractions and agreed +in its transition and melting-points with 2-oleodipalmitin, while the hydrogenated products +in each case were 2-stearodipalmitin. The symmetrical form of oleodipalmitin was thus +exclusively present. Similar examination of the palmitodistearins obtained by hydrogenation +of the palmitodioleins in the three more soluble fractions showed, in contrast, that the latter +were present in both the symmetrical and the unsymmetrical configuration, the amounts of +each positional isomeride being probably of the same order. +Description — Large tree to 40.0 m tall and up to 2.5 m diameter, the young branches +villous-tomentose, becoming glabrous with age. Leaves trifoliolate; petioles 4.0 to 15.0 cm +long, villous-tomentose to puberulous, terete to slightly striate; leaflets shortly petiolulate, +the terminal petiolule 3.0 to 6.0 mm long, the lateral petiolules 2.0 to 4.0 mm long; petiolules +puberulous when young, canaliculate; the laminas elliptic, acuminate at apex, the acumen +3.0 to 10.0 mm long, serrate to crenate at margins, rounded to cordate at base, villous to +glabrous above, densely villous-hirsute or with a sparse pubescence on the venation only +beneath, the terminal lamina 8.0 to 11.0 cm long, 6.0 to 12.0 cm broad, the lateral laminas +slightly smaller; primary veins 12 to 19 pairs, slightly impressed or plane above, prominent +beneath; venation extremely prominent beneath; stipels absent. Peduncles 5.0 to 13.0 cm +long, tomentellous or puberulous when young, glabrescent, lenticellate. Inflorescences of +clustered racemes, the rachis 3.0 to 4.0 cm long, tomentose when young; flowering pedicels +1.8 to 3.5 cm long, puberulous to glabrous, with 2 membraneous subpersistent bracteoles. +Calyx campanulate-cupuliform, ca. 1.5 cm long, gray puberulous to glabrous on exterior, +the lobes 5, rounded. Corolla ca. 2.5 cm long, the lobes 5, oblong-elliptic, pale yellow. +Stamens numerous, ca. 300, the filaments shortly united into a ring at base but not into +groups, subpersistent, of two distinct lengths with several of intermediate lengths, the longest +ca. 6.5 to 7.0 cm long, yellow, the apical 1.0 to 3.0 mm tuberculate, the shortest ca. 55, +1.0 to 1.5 cm long, with distinct fused portion at base, tuberculate entire length, the anthers +small. Ovary globose, 4-locular, glabrous on exterior. Styles 4, filamentous, equalling +filaments, glabrous. Fruit oblong-globose, 6.0 to 7.0 cm long, 7.0 to 8.0 cm broad; exocarp +glabrous, lenticellate; pericarp thick, fleshy, detaching from mesocarp and endocarp; me- +socarp and endocarp enveloping seed to form a reniform stone ca. 5.0 cm broad, the exterior +of mesocarp smooth and undulate, the interior enveloping endocarp spines; endocarp with +numerous fine spines ca. 3.0 mm long, and a hard wood interior, ca. 1.0 mm thick. +77 +Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, the pequi is +sensitive to wind damage. Prance and da Silva^^ key C. villosum with acuminate leaflets, +C. brasilien se as with rounded or acute leaflets. C. coriaceum is also found in the complex +known to Brazilians as Pequi. +Distribution — French Guiana and Amazonian Brazil (C. villosum ). Dry woodland of +the northern and eastern part of the Planalto of central Brazil (C. coriaceum ). Brazil and +adjacent Bolivia and Paraguay (C. brasilien se). Cultivated in Singapore and Sumatra (C. +villosum ). +Ecology — Grows above flood level in the Amazon valley (Burkill, C. villosum ). +Cultivation — Wickhan, in Lane,*^'* figured the trees should be spaced at 100 trees per +ha. +Harvesting — Trees have grown to 18 m in 9 years. +Yields and economics — I quote exactly from Wickhan’s letter, as quoted by Lane:*^"^ +“ Reckoning the fruit as giving some 3/4 lb. of fat, the yield per acre should be from 1300 +lbs. to 1/2 tons, it will therefore be at once apparent that this greatly exceeds any existing +source of supply — coconut (copra), palm kernels, etc...” +Energy — The husk of the fruit is used, like coconut husks, for fuel, either directly or +after conversion to charcoal. Prunings could also be used for fuel. +Biotic factors — C aryocar villosum is bat pollinated, with two or three of the many +flowers in a given influorescence opening at night, shortly after dark. The pollination process +is described in Prance and da Silva. +78 Handbook of Nuts +CARYODENDRON ORINOCENSE Karst. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Inche, Cacay, Nambi, +Arbol de Nuez, Kakari Taccy Nut +Uses — According to Garcia-Barriga,‘°^ the oil is used like olive oil, while the toasted +seed is very flavorful and nutritious. According to Schultes,the oil is valued for a wide +range of uses, from cooking to soap-making and cosmetics. The thin, brown shell surrounding +the kernel, is easily broken with the fingers.The tree has been suggested as a plantation +crop for Latin America.*®^ +Folk medicine — In the Llanos of Colombia, the oil is painted onto skin afflictions. A +half-ounce dose is taken as a laxative. It is believed to fortify the lungs. +Chemistry — Seeds contain ca. 50% of a yellowish oil, the husk 17.1%, the pulp 82.9%. +The pulp contains 6.6% water. +Description — Tree to 20 m tall, the crown conical; trunk yellowish-ochraceous, striate, +with a watery pinkish-yellow latex. Leaves alternate, glabrous, narrowly elliptic or obovate, +the margins entire, revolute, 12 to 25 cm long, 4 to 10 cm wide, apically acute, basally +cuneate; primary veins ca. 7 to 11; biglandular at the base of the blade. Petiole glabrous, +canaliculate above, dilated at both ends, 1 to 5.5 cm long. Flowers unisexual, the male in +terminal racemes, with 3 concave tepals, 4 conical glabrous stamens, longidehiscent; disk +white. Female flowers with 5 to 6 ovate tepals; ovary trilocular, triovulate, stigma short and +trilobate, disk annular, trilobate. Fruit globose-oblong, 5 to 6 cm long, 4 to 5 cm broad, +usually 3-seeded. Seeds 3 cm long, 1.7 cm wide.^°^’^^^ +Germplasm — From the South American Center of Diversity, inche is reported to tolerate +poor soils in lateritic and savanna situations. +Distribution — According to PIRB,^^^ the species is native to the Llanos Orientales and +Putumayo of Colombia. I’m told there are plantations in Ecuador, and I have seen plants, +apparently thriving, in the humid climate of Talamanca, Costa Rica. +Ecology — I estimate inche ranges from Tropical Dry to Wet through Subtropical Dry +to Wet Forest Life Zones, tolerating annual precipitation of 15 to 60 dm, annual temperature +of 23 to 29°C, and pH of 4.5 to 7.5. Said to be of the tropical humid zone,*°^ ranging from +300 to 1000 m above sea level,where the drier season lasts at least 4 months. +Cultivation — Propagated by seed, the tree has been suggested as an oilseed plantation +crop. +79 +Harvesting — Said to start bearing in 4 to 5 years. The determinate height of the tree is +said to facilitate harvest. +Yields and economics — According to Garcia-Barriga,*®^ each tree produces 280 to 300 +kg of fruit, which at the density of 50 trees per ha would calculate to 15 MT fruit. In round +figures, 25 fruits would weigh 375 g, or 15 g per fruit. Of that 15 g, there would be about +8 g husk, 1 g testa, and 6 g of kernel. That 6 g kernel should contain about 2 to 3 g oil. +This suggests a conversion factor of 20% oil in the fruit. According to PIRB,^^^ the cost of +establishment and maintenance should be less than that of African Oil Palm. Since the yield +is similar, possibly inche could return equal or greater profits. +Energy — If we accept the speculative yield and conversion figures derived above, there +could be 3 MT oil, half the expected yield of oilpalm. But, if the same yields were obtained +with 100 trees per hectare instead of 50, there could be as good a yield here as with oil +palm, with 6 MT oil and possibly 12 MT edible seedcake. +Biotic factors — No data available. +80 Handbook of Nuts +CAST ANEA CRENATA Sieb, and Zucc. (FAGACEAE) — Japanese Chestnut, Juri +Syn.: Castanea stricta Sieb, and Zucc., Castanea pubinervis (Hassk.) C. K. Schneid., +and Castanea japónica Blume. +Uses — Kernel of nut used as food by Chinese and Japanese, both for humans and for +fattening sw ine.N ut shell extract, bur, and bark used for staining. Male flower used to +stain cloth a red-brown color.W ood strong, very hard, heavy, durable in soil, used in +Japan for furniture, cabinet work, railroad ties, and in ship-building. Planted in southern +Europe for timber. Well adapted for ornamental planting. +Folk medicine — In China and Korea, flowers are used for tuberculosis and scrofula. +Decoction of fresh leaves said to allay skin irritation caused by lacquer. Root used for hernia. +An ointment for boils made with powdered charcoal from involucres mixed with oil.^"^^ +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 399 calories, 7.0 g protein, +1.4 g fat, 89.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 g fiber, 2.3 g ash, 79.8 mg Ca, 188 mg P, 3.8 mg +Fe, 37.6 mg Na, 0.89 mg thiamine, 0.42 mg riboflavin, 3.76 mg niacin, and 68.1 mg +ascorbic acid.®^ +Description — Small tree or shrub, often less than 10 m tall, but occasionally much +larger, up to 17 m, attaining great girth, with many spreading limbs and slender branches; +young shoots at first densely gray-white with short hairs, becoming glabrous or sparsely +velutinous; leaves at first densely stellate pubescent all over, retaining on under-surface +some pubescence or becoming glabrous, puberulous on veins above, elliptic to oblong- +lanceolate, or narrowly oblong, with long acuminate tip and cordate or round at base, margin +crenate-serrate or subentire with 10 to 25 bristle teeth on each side, 8 to 16 cm long, 3 to +5 cm broad, thick and heavy, quite crinkly, dark lustrous green above, grayish-green beneath; +petiole pubescent, about 2 cm long, stipules soon deciduous, lanceolate, acuminate, gradually +broaden at base; winter buds short, ovoid, glabrous, shining crimson; staminate spikes 5 to +20 cm or more long, densely flowered, yellowish-white, erect or suberect; pistillate flowers +clustered among the male spikes, occurring in involucres about 5 mm thick, styles exserted, +about 3 mm long, densely covered with ascending long gray hairs; bur small in wild types, +in cultivated types often to 6 cm in diameter, with long, almost glabrous spines; nuts 2 to +3 per bur, hilum occupying whole basal area.^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Japanese chestnut, +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, frost, and slope.Several Japanese varieties +are grown extensively, as ‘Alpha’, ‘Reliance’, and ‘Parry’, the last being a hybrid with C. +dentata, suitable for planting in California. Other Japanese varieties include: ‘Advance’, +‘Beta’, ‘Biddle’, ‘Black’, ‘Col’, ‘Eureka’, ‘Felton’, ‘Hale’, ‘Kent’, ‘Kerr’, ‘Killan’, ‘Mar­ +tin’, ‘McFarland’, ‘Prolific’, ‘Success’, and ‘Superb’. ( 2 n = 22,24.) +Distribution — Native to Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu) and Korea. Much planted +in Japan for the nuts. Introduced and extensively planted in southern Europe for timber. +Introduced to the U.S. in 1876.^®® Hardy as far north as Massachusetts.^^* +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Rain through Warm Temperate to +Moist Forest Life Zones, Japanese chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of +9.4 to 23.4 dm (mean of 6 cases = 13.3), annual temperature of 9.9 to 15.8°C (mean of +6 cases = 12.9°C), and pH of 5.0 to 6.8 (mean of 5 cases = 5.9).*^ Trees grow best on +well-drained, porous soil, with deep porous subsoil. Withstand temperatures and rainfall of +most temperate climates.Hardy to Zone 6.^^^^ +Cultivation — Trees propagated by whip-grafting to American chestnut (C. dentata). +American species usually cut down, and the sprouts springing from the remaining roots, +when 1.3 to 2 cm in diameter, are grafted with desired varieties of Japanese chestnut. Whip +and cleft methods of grafting are used. Trees already grafted with desired varieties may be +obtained for the orchard. Seedlings may be top-worked with the permanent kinds after they +81 +have become established. Trees set out not less than 10 m apart each way. Trees may be +planted closer at first and thinned out for permanent spacing in 10 to 15 years. Meanwhile, +trees may be intercropped with vegetables or small tree crops. Two-year old grafts are +commonly loaded with burs. It is good practice to keep burs picked from young trees for 3 +to 4 years to allow trees to become well-established before crop production is started. If +trees are allowed to over-bear, nuts run down in size. Japanese varieties do not abort their +burs, and seem to be completely self-fertile.^^^ +Harvesting — Trees are very productive and begin to fruit commercially when 6 years +old. Nuts are picked from the ground, dried, and stored until marketed or used.^^^ +Yields and economics — No yield data available, but all records state that trees are +precocious and very productive. Great quantities of Japanese chestnut are grown and con­ +sumed in Japan and China. +Energy — Wood, burs, and husks may be used for fuel or charcoal production. +Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack Japanese chestnut: Actinopelte +japónica, Botryosphaeria ribis, Capnodium salicinum, Cronartium quercinum, Cryptodia- +porthe castanea, Daedalea que reina, Endothia nitschkei, E. parasitica, E. radicalis, F ornes +melanoporus, Fomitopsis castanea, Gloeosporium castanicola, Helicobasidium mompa, +Laestadia orientalis, Leszites betulina, Limacinia cheni, Microsphaera alni, Monochaetia +desmazierii, M. pachyspora, Ovularia castaneae, Phyllactinia quercus, Phytophthora cam- +bivora, P. cinnamomi, Polyporus cinnabarinus, P. gilvus, P. hirsutas, P. nidulans, P. +pargamenus, P. rhodophaeus, P. tulipiferus, P. versicolor, Polystictus hirsutas, P. san­ +guineus, Puccineastrum castaneae, Pycnoporus coccineus, Schizophyllum commune, Sep- +toria gilletiana, Stereum gausapatum. Trámetes dickinsii, T. vittata. Also Bacterium castaneae +attacks trees. However, plants are resistant to Eastern Filbert B l i g h t . M o r e susceptible +to chestnut blight fungus, Endothia parasitica, than the Chinese species, C. mollissima. +Trees may deteriorate slowly or be killed before reaching maturity. +82 Handbook of Nuts +CAST ANEA DENT AT A (Marsh.) Borkh. (FAG ACE AE) — American or Sweet Chestnut +Syn.: Castanea americana Raf. +Uses — Native and cultivated trees provide nuts which are sweeter than Old World types. +Nuts are gathered and sold in eastern U.S. markets. Reddish-brown wood light, soft, coarse­ +grained, elastic, moderately strong, easily split, easy to work, tending to warp on drying, +resistant to decay. Used in manufacture of cabinet work, caskets, crates, desks, furniture, +interior finishes of houses, pianos, railway ties, ship masts, fence posts, telephone poles, +rails, mine timbers, siding for bams and other buildings, paper pulp. Tannin in wood used +in tanning extracts. Formerly planted in eastern U.S. as an ornamental and for timber, as +well as for nuts.^’^^’^^'* +Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, sedative, tonic, and vermifuge, American +chestnut is a folk remedy for dysentery and pertussis.^’ Leaves have sedative properties. +Indians used the bark to treat worms and dysentery. +Chemistry — Leaves contain 9% tannic acid, which is colored green with ferric salts, +and a mucilage insoluble in alcohol.Wood contains from 6 to 11% tannin.Chestnuts +are starchy nuts, containing ca. 40 to 45% carbohydrates and less than 1% oil, as compared +with pecans with 70% oil and other tree nuts with ca. 60% oil.^^^ Nuts contain ca. 1,700 +calories/lb.^^^ According to Woodroof,^“^* chestnuts contain no oil and are very high in +carbohydrates, especially starch, making them more easily digestible than other nuts. Ranging +from 21 to 25% shells, 4.5 to 6.5% moisture, and 69 to 72% dry matter, native chestnuts +are reported to contain 2.66 to 2.72% ash, 12.20 to 12.23% total protein, 2.84 to 3.63% +fiber, 65.03 to 66.16% total nitrogen-free extract, and 16.08 to 16.42% fat.^"^^ +Description — Deciduous tree, up to 50 m tall; tmnk straight, columnar, 1 to 1.3 m in +diameter; when uncrowned the tmnk is shorter and 3.3 to 4 m in diameter; round-topped, +with horizontal limbs spreading to 30 m across; branchlets at first yellow-green, tinged with +red and pubemlous, becoming olive-green and glabrous, eventually becoming dark brown; +winter-buds ovoid, about 0.6 cm long, with dark-brown scales, scarious on margins; bark +2.5 to 5 cm thick, dark-brown, deeply ridged with irregular, often intermpted fissures; leaves +oblong-lanceolate, apex acute, acuminate, base gradually narrowed and cuneate, 15 to 20 +cm long, about 5 cm broad, when young yellow-green and pubemlous on upper surface and +tomentose beneath, becoming glabrous at maturity, turning yellow late in fall; petioles about +1.3 cm long, slightly angled, pubemlous, often reddish; stipules ovate-lanceolate, pubem­ +lous, about 1.3 cm long; staminate aments at maturity 15 to 20 cm long, with crowded +flower-clusters; androgynous aments slender, pubemlous, 6 to 12.5 cm long, with 2 or 3 +involucres if pistillate flowers near base; but 5 to 6.5 cm in diameter, covered with glabrous +much-branched spines, opening with frost and gradually shedding nut; nut much compressed, +1.3 to 2.5 cm in diameter, broader than long, with thick pale tomentum at apex or nearly +to middle, interior of hull lined with mfous tomentum; kernel very sweet. Root system +extensive both laterally and vertically. Flowers with strong fragrance, June to July.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, American chestnut +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, frost, heat, poor soil, sand, slope, and weeds. +Some varieties grown for nuts are ‘Ketchem’, ‘Watson’, and ‘GriffinHybrids with +blight-resistant Chinese and Japanese species have led to several mixed varieties not in +cultivation. Continuous efforts to find immune or resistant strains and repeated attempts to +produce resistant hybrids resembling it have failed to give varieties considered safe to plant. +‘Clapper’ is a hybrid from a cross of Chinese-American hybrid backcrossed to the American +chestnut, and is a rapid-growing timber-type. +(2n = 24.) +Distribution — Native throughout the eastern U.S. from southern Maine to southern +Ontario, south to Delaware, Ohio, southern Indiana, and along the mountains to northern +83 +Georgia and western Florida, from sea-level in Massachusetts to 1,300 m in North Carolina, +reaching its greatest height in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. Until about +1905, chestnut was important for its durable wood and its nuts. Trees were nearly completely +destroyed by the Chestnut Blight, a fungus bark disease (Endothia parasitica). Sprouts and +shrubby growth from bases of wild trees still appear and sometimes persist long enough to +produce fruit. +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Moist through Warm Temperate to +Moist Forest Life Zones, American chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of +4.9 to 11.6 dm (mean of 3 cases = 8.3), annual temperature of 8.4 to 12.5°C (mean of 3 +cases = 9.9), and pH of 5.6 to 7.3 (mean of 3 cases = 6.5).®^ Thrives on a variety of +soils, from almost pure sand to coarse gravels and shales. Does not grow well on limestone. +Prefers dry, well-drained, rocky land of the glacial drift to the richer, more compact alluvial +soil of lowlands. Chestnut does not need a rich soil so much as one whose physical structure +insures good drainage. Light is essential to the tree, since it is somewhat intolerant to shade. +Grows best in a cool climate, but can endure heat and dry sunny situations.Hardy to +Zone 4.^"^^ +Cultivation — Propagation is by direct seedling or by use of nursery-grown seedlings. +To prevent drying out and lowering of germination ability, collected seeds should be kept +stratified in moist sand until the following spring. The nursery should be located on fresh, +well-drained, fertile soil. Thorough cultivation of soil is required. Seed should be planted +about 2.5 cm apart in rows about 45 cm apart, at a depth of 2.5 cm. Bushel contains 6,500 +to 8,000 nuts, sufficient to plant about 200 m of nursery rows, and to produce about 4,000 +plants. While in the nursery, seedlings require careful cultivation and should be kept weed- +free. When planting in permanent sites, trees should be set 2 m apart each way. If trees are +to be grown directly from seed without transplanting, seed spots should be prepared, spaced +as above. Two or three seeds should be planted in each and covered about 2.5 cm deep +with fine soil. Only one tree should be allowed to remain in each hill. Little cultivation is +necessary after trees become established. Seedlings grow 25 to 37 cm by the end of the first +season and 37 to 50 cm per year until the 13th year.^^® +Harvesting — Mature nuts should be gathered every other day during the period of +maturity. Frequent and clean collection of nuts is especially important if nuts are likely to +be infested with weevils or if weather is hot and dry. Within a week’s time, nuts on the +ground, or those in opened burs on trees, may become dry or they may mold and spoil. In +harvesting nuts from a tree, it is advisable to first knock nuts from opened burs with pole +and then gather up nuts from ground. If harvested nuts are infested with weevils, they should +be treated by immersing them in water at 49°C for 30 to 45 min, depending on size of nuts. +After heating for proper length of time, nuts are removed immediately from hot water and +permitted to dry. Nuts, gathered and treated, are spread out in a layer no more than 3 or 4 +nuts deep to cure, on a floor or in trays in a well-ventilated building. Nuts should receive +no direct sunlight. Time for curing depends upon amount of moisture in air. Usually 1 or +2 days of curing is adequate. Under proper conditions, chestnuts can be stored from time +of harvest to late April with minimal spoilage; nuts come out of storage in the same condition +as they went in, and they have been found to germinate promptly. Chestnuts for eating may +be stored in deep freezers, but they must be cooked promptly after being removed. To freeze +the nuts, they should be shelled and the kernels blanched. Nuts must not be roasted slowly, +as they will explode in oven or they will not freeze satisfactorily. After shells have been +removed, if any of brown skin covering kernel remains, kernels should be blanched. This +is done by immersing kernels in boiling water for 1 or 2 min and quickly freezing them in +freezer containers. They are then kept — 18°C or lower until ready to be cooked, like frozen +peas or lima beans. Chestnuts are marketed packaged in cans, woven bags of cotton or jute, +or in baskets having tight-fitting lids.^^® Leaves are collected in September and October. +84 Handbook of Nuts +With smaller nuts, the American chestnut, had it survived productive, would be expected +to yield somewhat less than the European. Smith reports Italian yields of ca. 1100 kg/ha, +French of 1500, and Spanish of ca. 2800 kg/ha. +Yields and economics — Yield varies from 6,500 to 8,000 nuts per bu. At present time, +American chestnut is not an item of commercial importance, either for the nuts or for timber, +as it was prior to 1907 to 1918, when most of the trees in the eastern U.S. were destroyed. +Chestnuts grown at present are hybrids of Chinese chestnuts (C. mollissima) or other species, +resistant to blight. +Energy — Wood and burs may be used for firewood or for the production of charcoal. +Biotic factors — American chestnut is devastated by Chestnut Blight {Endothia paras­ +itica), and since 1918 it has not been a commercial product.Weevils in the nuts are a +problem.Browne^^ lists the following as affecting this species: Fungi — Cryptodiaporthe +castanea, Daedalea quercina, Endothia parasitica, Phellinus gilvas, Phytophthora dentata, +Polyporus frondosas, P pargamenus, Urnula craterium; Acariña — Oligonychas bicolor, +Coleóptera — Elaphidion villosanr, Lepidoptera — Acronicta americana, Alsophila po- +metaria, Anisota virginiensis, Datana ministra, Disphargia gattivitta, Ennomos magnaria, +E. sabsignaria, Lymantria dispar, Nematocampa dentata, Symmerista albifrons; and Mam­ +malia — Lepas americanas, Odocoileas virginianas. According to Agriculture Handbook +165,"^ the following are reported as affecting C. dentata: Actinopelte dryina (leaf spot), +Alearodiscas acerinas (bark patch), Anthostoma dryophilam, Armillaria mellea (root and +butt rot), Asconidiam castaneae, Botryosphaeria ribis, B. castaneae, Cenangum castaneae, +C. albo-atrum, Ceratostomella microspora, Chlorociboria aeruginosa, C. versiformia, +Chlorosplenium chlora, Clasterosporiam sigmoideam, Clitocybe illudens, C. monadelpha, +Colpoma quercinum, Corticium caeruleum, Coryneum spp., Cronartium cerebrum (rust), +Cryptodiaporthe castanea (twig canker), Cryptospora cinctula, Cylindrosporiam castaneae +(Leaf spot), Daedalea quercina, D. confragosa, Diaporthe eres, Didymella castañeda, +Diplodia longispora, Discohainesia oenotherae, Discosia artocreas, Endothia gyrosa, E. +radicalis. Fax olas alveolaris, F ene Stella castanicola, F. phaeospora. Fistulina hepática, +F. pallida, Flammula sp.. Pomes annosas (root and butt rot), F. applanatus (butt rot or on +stumps), F. everhartii (white spongy heart rot), F. ohiensis, F. pinicola (brown crumbly +heart rot), F. scutellatus, Gnomonia setacea, Hymenochaete rubiginosa, Laestadia castan­ +icola, Lenzites betulina, Leptothyrium castaneae, Marssonina ochroleaca, Melanconis mo- +donia, Melanconium cinctum, Meraliasfagax, M. tremellosas, Microsphaerea alni (powdery +mildew), Monochaetia desmazierii (leaf spot), M. pachyspora, Mycosphaerella maculifor- +mis, M. punctiformis, Myxosporiam castaneam. Panas radis, P. stipticas, Pezicula par­ +par ascens, Pholiota adiposa, P. sqaarrosa, Phoma castanea, Phyllosticta castanea, P. +fusispora, Physalospora obtusa, Phytophthora cinnamomi, Pleurotus ostreatas, Polyporus +spp., Rutstroemia americana, Scolecosporiam fagi, Sphaerognomonia carpinea, Steccher- +inum adustum, Steream spp., Strumella coryneoidea, Trametes sepiam (wood rot), and +Xylaria hypoxylon.^^^'^^^'^^^ +85 +CASTANEA MOLLISSIMA Blume (FAGACEAE) — Chinese Hairy Chestnut +Syn.: Castanea saliva \ 2lt . formosana Hayata, Castanea formo sana (Hayata) Hayata, +and Castanea bungeana Blume. +Uses — Nut unexcelled in sweetness and general palatability by any other known chestnut. +By far the most common food nut, almost taking the place of potato in parts of the Orient. +Eaten raw, boiled, roasted, cooked with meat, made into confections, powdered and mixed +with candy, dried whole. Valuable for wildlife where nut production is more important than +timber. Recommended for hardiness, blight resistance and large nuts. Wood, leaves, and +bark used for their tannin content.Has merit as an ornamental tree.^'*^ +Folk medicine — Reported to be hemostat, Chinese chestnut is a folk remedy for diarrhea, +dysentery, epistaxis, nausea, and thirst.The flower is used for scrofula. Stem-bark used +for poisoned wounds; the sap for lacquer poisoning. The fruit pulp is poulticed onto animal +bites, rheumatism, and virulent sores; husk astringent and used for dysentery, nausea, and +thirst; charred husks applied to boils. The root is used for hernia.^ +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 403 calories, 11.9 g +protein, 2.7 g fat, 83.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.2 g ash, 36 mg Ca, 168 mg P, 3.8 mg Fe, +216 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.29 mg thiamine, 0.32 mg riboflavin, 1.44 mg niacin, +and 65 mg ascorbic acid.*^ +Description — Deciduous trees, long-lived, 15 to 20 m tall, spreading, round-topped; +branches glabrous, branchlets covered with dense pubescence of coarse spreading hairs; +86 Handbook of Nuts +leaves with dense stellate pubescence when young, this persistent on under-surface of mature +leaves, alternate, 10 to 20 cm long, 5 to 10 cm broad, with 12 to 20 deep serrations on +each side, oblong-lanceolate to elliptic-oblong, base rounded or cordate, apex acute to +scarcely acuminate; petioles 2 to 3 cm long, with few long hairs; stipules over 2 cm long, +very veiny and rugose, abruptly broadened; staminate spikes axillary or terminal, 20 cm +long or more; pistillate flowers in hirsute globose involucres 1 cm thick, situated at base of +male spikes or occasionally terminating some spikes; styles about 5 mm long, densely hirsute; +bur up to 6 cm thick, with long, very stout, strongly pubescent spines; nut about 2.5 cm +thick, with small to rather extensive patch of tawny felt at apex; nut with thin skin which +peels readily from kernel. Flowers late May to late June in Maryland, earlier south ward. +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Chinese chestnut, +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, frost, and slope.Many cvs have been +introduced from China, and several hybrids with Japanese and American chestnuts have +been produced in attempts to breed-in blight-resistance. But most of them have failed for +one reason or another. Cultivars presently in the trade include: ‘Abundance’, which produces +110 nuts per kg (84 to 167); ‘Ruling’, ‘Meiling’, ‘Nanking’, and ‘Carr’; the latter produces +128 nuts per kg, has good cleaning quality, a sweet, pleasing flavor, and was the first variety +grafted in this country, but is not grown at the present time. Most of grafted Chinese chestnuts +have shown troublesome stock-scion incompatibility, which causes grafts to fail. Such +failures may occur in the first year, but more often after 4 to 6 years of vigorous growth. +Failure seems to relate to winter injury and is more frequent northward. Seedlings of selected +trees, as ‘Hemming’ from Maryland and ‘Peter Lui’ from Georgia, are among the most +promising. Seedlings of ‘Nanking’ come true to type and are planted commercially in the +South. Other cvs are hardy northward to Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the +warmer areas of New York. Two of the more recent hybrids are ‘Sleeping Giant Chestnut’ +(C. mollissima x (C. crenata x C. dentata)) and ‘Kelsy Chestnut’ (C. mollissima x ?). +Also, ‘Stoke’ is a natural Japanese x Chinese chestnut hybrid. +Distribution — Native to north and west China and Korea. First introduced in the U.S. +in 1853 and again in 1903 and 1906. This species has been in cultivation in China for a +long time. It is practically the only species of chestnut being planted in the U.S. for +commercial purposes. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Subtropical Dry to +Moist Forest Life Zones, Chinese chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.4 +to 12.8 dm (mean of 5 cases = 11.6), annual temperature of 10.3 to 17.6°C (mean of 5 +cases = 14.2°C), and pH of 5.5 to 6.5 (mean of 5 cases = 5.9).^^ +Chinese chestnut requires much the same conditions of climate, soil, and soil moisture +as does peach. Air-drainage must be good, and frost pockets must be avoided. Trees grow +naturally on light-textured acid soils, but they show a wide range of tolerance for well- +drained soils of different textures. Young trees are sensitive to drought and may be killed. +Cultivars and hybrids are about as hardy as peach and may be planted in any areas where +peaches do well, most withstanding temperatures to -28°C when fully dormant. Unless +leaves are removed soon after turning brown, they are apt to become heavily laden with +wet snow or ice and cause severe damage. This situation is particularly common at altitudes +of 600 to 700 m, as in West Virginia.Hardy to Zone 4.^"^^ +Cultivation — Propagated readily from seed, from which selections are made. Nuts lose +their viability quickly after harvesting. Seeds may be germinated in nursery beds and the +seedlings planted out after two y e a rs.A s they do not compete well with weeds, young +trees should be kept cultivated for the first few years.Trees lend themselves readily to +orchard culture, although trees are not particularly vigorous. Trees are self-sterile; in order +to produce fruit, two or more cultivars should always be planted near each other for cross­ +pollination. Spring growth is rapid as long as soil is moist, but root development is shallow +87 +during the first few years, and trees must be watered during dry periods. Young trees +frequently retain their leaves during much of the winter. Sun-scald on exposed sides of +trunks of newly planted trees may be a problem. Usually trees are headed low enough to +provide for shading by tops. Trees should be planted as close as 4 x 4 m or 4.6 X 4.6 m +each way; such trees should not be pruned. Cutting the lower branches from trunks invites +blight infection. Trees do best when left to grow in bush form. Trees planted in this manner +must have good cultivation, the same as for apple, peach, or pear trees. +Harvesting — Trees begin to bear when 5 to 6 years old; those for orchard culture with +profitable crops begin in 10 to 12 years. Chestnuts should be harvested daily as soon as +burs open and nuts fall to ground. Nuts should be placed at once on shelves or in curing +containers with wooden or metal bottoms to prevent larvae which may crawl out of nut from +reaching the ground. All infected nuts should be promptly burned. For curing the nuts, they +should be spread thinly on floors or the like, stirred frequently and held for 5 to 10 days, +depending upon condition of nuts and atmospheric conditions at time of harvest. During the +curing period, nuts will shrink in weight, and the color will change from lustrous to dull +brown. Three weeks is about as long as Chinese chestnuts remain sound without special +treatment. Chestnuts should be marketed as promptly as possible to minimize deterioration. +Chestnuts in sound condition may be stored in cold storage with temperature just above +freezing; this is the simplest method. Stratifying in a wire-mesh container buried deeply in +moist, well-drained sand is also very satisfactory. Putting nuts in a tightly closed tin container +at refrigerator temperature or in cold storage at 0°C is also acceptable. +Yields and economics — Average yields are about 13 to 25 kg per year per tree, with +large trees producing from 25 to 126 kg per tree.^^^ According to Wyman,trees are said +to produce an average crop of 34 to 45 kg edible nuts per tree. Major producers are China +and Korea. Very limited cultivation in U.S., with trend increasing. +Energy — Wood and burs may be used to bum, as is, or converted to charcoal. +Biotic factors — The following have been reported as affecting this species: Cronartium +cerebrum (mst), Cryptodiaporthe castanea (canker, dieback), Cytospora sp. (twig blight), +Diplodia sp. (twig blight), Discohainesia oenotherae, Gloeosporium sp. (blossom-end rot +of nuts), Marssonina ochroleuca (leaf spot), Phomopsis sp. (twig blight), Septoria gilletiana +(leaf spot), and Stereum gausapatum (heart rot)."^ Pollination is carried on by insects. Chinese +chestnut is largely, but not wholly, self-sterile. More than a single seedling or grafted cv +should be included in any planting. Several seedlings or several cvs would be better. Trees +producing inferior fruit should be removed. Chinese chestnut is not immune to the blight +(Endothia parasitica), but is sufficiently resistant for trees to persist and bear crops. Trees +develop bark cankers as a a result of infection, but the lesions usually heal. Nuts are attacked +by several diseases, either before or after harvest. Most serious pests are chestnut weevils, +often called curculios, which if unchecked, often render whole crops unfit for use.^® Trees +are often planted in poultry yards, in order to decimate the bugs. Japanese beetles are a +serious pest on leaves in some areas. June bugs and May beetle also feed on the newest +leaves, mainly at night. +Jones et al.^^"^ report that in commercial and home plantings of Chinese chestnut in 6 +southeastern and eastern states, 23 of the trees had main stem cankers incited by Endothia +parasitica. In general, they found the main stem canker incidence (13 to 93) was higher in +plantings of the Appalachian Mountain region than in the Piedmont region (2 to 13 incidence). +They found the trees that were damaged most were located in high-wind and cold-winter +areas of the Appalachian Mountains. +88 Handbook of Nuts +CASTANEA PUMILA (L.) Mill. (FAGACEAE) — Chinquapin, Allegany Chinkapin +Uses — Kernels of nuts are sweet and edible, but are not consumed by humans very +much; they are more of a wildlife food;^^^ also used to fatten hogs.'^® Used by Indians in +making bread and a drink similar to hot chocolateboiled and strung to make necklaces.'^® +Shrubs useful for planting on dry, rocky slopes, as they are attractive when in flower and +again in fall with their light green burs and dark foliage. Often planted as an ornamental. +The light, coarse-grained, hard, strong, and dark-brown wood is used for fenceposts, rails, +and railway ties.^^^ +Folk medicine — Reported to be tonic and astringent, chinquapin is a folk remedy for +intermittent fevers. +Chemistry — No data available. +Description — Usually a spreading shrub east of Mississippi River, 2 to 5 m tall, forming +thickets, often only 1.3 to 1.6 m tall, westward in range to Arkansas and eastern Texas, +becoming a tree to 17 m tall with trunk up to I m in diameter, round-topped with spreading +branches; branchlets at first bright red-brown, pubescent or nearly glabrous, becoming olive- +green or dark-brown; winter-buds reddish, oval to ovoid, about 0.3 cm long, tomentose +becoming scurfy pubescent; bark 1.3 to 2.5 cm thick, light-brown tinged red, slightly +furrowed; leaves oblong-elliptic to oblong-ovate, 7.5 to 15 cm long, 3 to 5 cm broad, +coarsely serrate, acuminate, gradually narrowed, unequal, rounded or cuneate at base, early +tomentose on both surfaces, at maturity thick and firm, pubescent beneath, turning dull +yellow in fall; petioles pubescent to nearly glabrous, flattened on upper surface, up to 1.3 +cm long; stipules pubescent, ovate to ovate-lanceolate to linear at end of branch; staminate +catkins single in leaf-axils toward ends of branches, simple with minute calyx and 8 to 20 +stamens, yellowish-white, slender, at maturity 10 to 15 cm long, pubescent, flowers in +crowded or scattered clusters; pistillate flowers on catkins near very tips of branches, several +females near base, numerous males on more distal portion (androgynous), silvery tomentose, +7.5 to 10 cm long; fruits usually several or many in large compact head or spike, each +involucre 1-flowered, 2 to 3.5 cm wide; bur 2 to 3.5 cm in diameter, covered with crowded +fascicles of slender spines, tomentose at base; nut shining, reddish-brown, ovoid, 1 to 2.5 +cm long, about 0.8 cm thick, coated with sil very-white pubescence, shell lined with lustrous +tomentum; kernel sweet. Flowers later than leaves. May to early June; fruits September to +October. +Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, chinquapin, or +CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, poor soil, slope, weeds, and waterlogging.^^ Few +selections of chinquapin have been made. More frequently it has been hybridized with +chestnuts. C. pumila var. ashei Sudw. (C. ashei Sudw.), the Coastal Chinquapin, grows +on sand dunes and in sandy woods along the coast from southeastern Virginia to northern +Florida and along the Gulf; small tree to 9 m tall and 26 cm in diameter, or large shrub, +leaves smaller, about 7.5 cm long and 3.5 cm broad, and spines on involucre less numerous. +Thought by some not to be distinct from species. Trees native to Arkansas and eastern Texas +are so much larger than those east of the Mississippi River, that they are considered by +some as a distinct species, Castanea ozarkensis Ashe; trees to 20 m tall, with narrowly +oblong elliptic leaves often 15 to 20 cm long, distinctly acuminate, coarsely serrate, with +triangular acuminate teeth, x Castanea neglecta Dode is a natural hybrid with American +chestnut (C. dentata), with intermediate leaves and involucres containing one large nut; +occurring in Blue Ridge areas (Highlands, North Carolina), ‘Essate-Jap’ is a hybrid between +the chinquapin and the Japanese chestnut, which forms a larger tree, with early flowers, +and nuts ripening 2 weeks or more before Chinese chestnuts; it grafts better on Japanese +stock than on Chinese. (2n = 24.)^^® +Distribution — Native in eastern U.S. from southern New Jersey and Pennsylvania to +89 +western Florida, through Gulf States to Texas (valley of Nueces River). It is most abundant +and attains its largest size in southern Arkansas and eastern Texas. +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest Life +Zones, chinquapin is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 11 to 13 dm, annual tem­ +perature of 12 to 19°C, and pH of 5.6 to 5.8.^^ Grows in mixed upland woods, on dry sandy +ridges, on hillsides, in sandy wastes, and along borders of ponds and streams, in dry or wet +acid soil. Occurs from sea-level to 1,500 m in the Appalachian Mountains. Prefers undis­ +turbed woods with plentiful humus, and a warm temperate climate.Grows in dry woods +and thickets.*^® Hardy to Zone 5.^^^^ +Cultivation — Propagated from seed, or often spreading by stolons. Seeds germinate +easily, sometimes sending out hypocotyl before reaching the ground. Although chinquapin +is planted, it is not cultivated as a crop. Occasionally, plants are planted for ornamentals, +or along edge of woods for wildlife food. Once planted, shrubs require no attention. +Harvesting — Shrubs begin bearing nuts when 3 to 5 years old, and are prolific producers +of small, sweet, nutty-flavored nuts. Nuts harvested in fall by man and wildlife. +Yields and economics — According to Rosengarten^^^ nuts of C. pumila, sweet and very +small, yield 400 to 700 nuts per lb (800 to 1540/kg), compared to 75 to 160/lb (165 to +352/kg) for the American chestnut, and 30 to 150/lb (66 to 330/kg) for Chinese chestnut. +Nuts are sold in markets in southern and western states. Timber is used west of the Mississippi +River. Most valuable as wildlife crop.^^^ +Energy — Wood and burs can be used for fuel, as is, or converted to charcoal. +Biotic factors — Although chinquapin is not resistant to the Chestnut Blight (Endothia +parasitica), shrubs make up for loss of diseased stems by increased growth of remaining +stems and by production of new shoots.Agriculture Handbook 165"^ lists the following +as affecting C. pumula: Actinopelte dryina (leaf spot), Armillaria mellea (root and butt rot), +Cronartium cerebrum (rust), Cryptospora cinctula, Discohainesia oenotherae, Endothia +radicalis, Gnomonia setacea, Lenzites betulina and L. trabea (brown cubical rot of dead +trunks and timber), Marssonina ochroleuca (brown-bordered leaf spot, eyespot), Melan- +conium cinctum (on twigs), Microsphaerea alni (powdery mildew), Monochaetia desmazierii +(leaf spot), Phyllosticta castanea (leaf spot), Phymatotrichum omnivorum (root rot), Phy­ +tophthora cinnamomi (root and collar rot of nursery plants and forest trees). Poly poms spp. +(various wood rots), and Stereum spp. (various wood rots). +90 Handbook of Nuts +CAST ANEA SATIVA Mill. (FAG ACE AE)—European, Spanish, Italian, or Sweet Chestnut +Syn.: C astan ea vu lgaris Lam., C astan ea vesca Gaertn., and C astan ea castan ea Karst. +Uses — European chestnuts are grown for the kernels of the nuts, extensively eaten by +humans and animals. Nuts used as vegetable, boiled, roasted, steamed, pureed, or in dressing +for poultry and meats. In some areas, chestnuts are considered a staple food, two daily +meals being made from them.^^® In some European mountainous regions, chestnuts are still +the staff of life, taking the place of wheat and potatoes in the form of chestnut flour, chestnut +bread, and mashed chestnuts. Flour made of ground chestnuts is said to have provided a +staple ration for Roman legions.In Italy, they are prepared like stew with gravy. Dried +nuts used for cooking purposes as fresh nuts, or eaten like peanuts. Culled chestnuts used +safely for fattening poultry and hogs. Cattle will also eat them.^^® Used as a coffee substitute, +for thickening soups, fried in oil; also used in brandy, in confectionary, desserts, and as a +source of oil. The relatively hard, durable, fine-grained wood is easy to split, not easy to +bend. Used for general carpentry, railroad ties, and the manufacture of cellulose. The bark +is used for tanning. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the nuts, when crushed with vinegar and +barley flour, have been said to be a folk remedy for indurations of the breasts. Reported to +be astringent, sedative and tonic, European chestnut is a folk remedy for circulation problems, +cough, extravasation, fever, hematochezia, hernia, hunger, hydrocoele, infection, inflam­ +mation, kidney ailments, myalgia, nausea, paroxysm, pertussis, rheumatism, sclerosis, scro­ +fula, sores, stomach ailments, and wounds.Aqueous infusion of leaves used as tonic, +astringent, and effective in coughs and irritable conditions of respiratory organs. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 406 to 408 calories, 6.1 +to 7.5 g protein, 2.8 to 3.2 g fat, 87.7 to 88.6 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 to 2.4 g fiber, 2.0 +to 2.1 g ash, 30.3 to 56.8 mg Ca, 184 to 185 mg P, 3.4 to 3.6 mg Fe, 12.6 to 32.3 mg +Na, 956 to 1705 mg K, 0.46 mg thiamine, 0.46 mg riboflavin, and 1.21 to 1.26 mg niacin.®^ +Chemical composition is similar to that of wheat; starch is easily digested after cooking. +WoodrooU"^^ reports Spanish chestnuts to contain 2.87 to 3.03% ash, 9.61 to 10.96% total +protein, 2.55 to 2.84% fiber, 73.75 to 77.70% total nitrogen-free extract, and 7.11 to 9.58% +fat. In a study on chestnuts from 19 natural stands in southern Yugoslavia, Miric et al.^^"^ +found in most samples the total fat content was between 4 and 5, the highest 5.62. Oleic +and linoleic acids predominated, followed by palmitic. +Description — Tree 30 m or more tall, with girth to 10 m; trunk straight, smooth, and +blackish or dark-green in youth, finally becoming brownish-gray with deep longitudinal and +often spirally curved fissures; branches wide-spreading; young shoots at first minutely downy, +becoming glabrous; buds ovoid, obtuse, the terminal one absent; young leaves densely +stellately pubescent, becoming glabrous; mature leaves 10 to 25 cm long, 3 to 7 cm broad, +oblong-elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, apex long-acuminate, base more or less rounded or +cordate, upper surface soft green, lower paler; blades rather thick and stiff, with 6 to 20 +bristles on each of the rather deeply serrate margins; petioles minutely velutinous, glandular- +lepidote or glabrous, about 2 cm long; stipules lanceolate, long-acute, gradually broadened +at base, 1 to 2.5 cm long, not markedly veined; winter buds dull-red, pubescent, long ovoid- +conic; staminate spikes 8 to 10 cm long, about 1 cm thick; pistillate flowers at base of male +spikes in large globose strigose involucres 1 to 2 cm thick; styles exserted up to 8 mm, +sparsely marked with ascending appressed hairs; bur green, 4 to 6 cm in diameter, with +numerous slender minutely pubescent spines up to 2 cm long; inside or husk marked by +very dense golden felt; nuts shining brown, with paler base, often 2 to 3.5 cm in diameter, +at tip thickly pubescent, bearing a short stalked perigynium with its persistent styles; kernel +variable from bitter to sweet. Flowers late May to July.^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the Near East Center of Diversity, European chestnut, or +91 +CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, frost, mycobacteria, and slope.The only +disadvantage of the European chestnut is that the skin is astringent, but since most of them +are cooked before eating, the skin is removed readily. The skin should not be eaten, as it +is indigestible. When European is crossed with American Sweet, this difficulty is modified +or eliminated. The following are some of the most generally cultivated cvs. ‘Marrón Corn- +bale’, ‘Marrón Nousillard’, and ‘Marrón Quercy’ originated in France; all have the very +large light- to dark-brown nuts and are very productive; ‘Numbo’ and ‘Paragon’ are the +most frequently grown cvs in the U.S.; they have medium-large, roundish nuts of fair quality, +and bear regularly. ‘Ridgely’, originated in Dover, Delaware, has fair-sized nuts, of very +good quality and flavor, with 2 or 3 nuts per bur; it is vigorous and productive. ‘Rochester’ +and ‘Comfort’ are grown to a limited extent. Hybrids with C. dentata have leaves with +cuneate bases. Some garden forms have variegated leaves or laciniate leaves (var. asplenifolia +Lodd.). (2n = 22,24. +Distribution — Native from southern Europe through Asia Minor to China. Cultivated +in many parts of the Himalayas, especially in Punjab and Khasia Hills. Naturalized in central, +western, and northern Europe, almost forming forests. Introduced on Pacific Coast of the +U.S. Extensively planted for its nuts and timber.Introduced to the U.S. in 1773 by +Thomas Jefferson. +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Warm Temperate Steppe +to Dry Forest Life Zones, European chestnut is reported to tolerate precipitation of 3.9 to +13.6 dm (mean of 14 cases = 8.6), annual temperature of 7.4 to 18.0°C (mean of 14 cases += 10.8), and pH of 4.5 to 7.4 (mean of 10 cases = 6.4).^^ +In woods, and often forming forests, on well-drained soils, often on mountain slopes, +usually calcifuge. Acclimated to all temperate areas. Trees retain foliage late in fall.^^^ +Cultivation — Thorough preparation of soil before planting is essential. For orchard +planting, trees are propagated by grafting and budding. Whip grafts on small shoots or +stocks about 1.3 to 2 cm in diameter, or cleft grafts on shoots 1.3 to 3 cm in diameter give +most successful results. Bark graft on shoots is also successful. In any method of grafting, +great care must be used in waxing and then rewaxing in about 2 weeks. Wax should cover +cuts made in stock and scion, and should be applied immediately after inserting the latter. +Scion should be waxed for its entire length, leaving no bubbles. Cover whole by tying paper +bag over top. European types frequently outgrow stocks and cause an enlarged imperfect +union. For orchard planting, trees should be spaced 13 x 13m, 17 x 17m, or20 x 20 +m; on good soil, the latter is preferable. Row could be set 20 m apart, with trees 7 to 8 m +apart in rows. It may be necessary to remove every other tree after they reach a certain size. +Good distance between rows provides for better growth of trees, and interplanting with +vegetables or small fruits. In any event, do not crowd chestnut trees. Dig holes 75 x 75 +cm, breaking down topsoil around rim and allowing it to fall into hole. Always use fine +top-soil around roots and firm soil well after planting. Before planting, cut with knife all +broken or bruised roots, and clip end of every root. Set trees no deeper than in nursery and +in same position, the bark on the north side being greener than that on south side. There +will be less loss from sunburn if southern side, hardened by exposure, is again placed to +the south. During first year or two, trees should be shaded. Sometimes the trunk is wrapped +with paraffined paper or burlap, lightly enough not to interfere with flow of sap. After +planting, cut back top to about 1.6 m; if tree is a straight whip, or if branched, cut branches +down to 2 or 3 buds from trunk. Staking young trees is desirable, but not necessary. Young +trees should be pruned to an open spreading form with 3 to 5 main branches on which top +will eventually form, after which trees need little care other than good culture. If trees are +allowed to overbear, nuts run down in size. Trees usually develop well without irrigation, +but larger yields result when water is applied. While tree is young, regular irrigation is very +desirable. Unless intercrops are grown, irrigation may be limited to one application per +92 Handbook of Nuts +month during growing season, after trees are bearing. Young trees may require irrigation +twice a month. Water should penetrate well into subsoil. Light irrigation induces shallow +rooting, which is undesirable. Do not continue irrigation too late in growing season, as it +is likely to make nuts crack open or over-develop them. Cracked nuts soon spoil and mold. +Cultivation must be thorough, so that free growth is promoted. After maturity, cultivation +need not be so intensive. During the first few years, it is advisable to hoe around tree by +hand, but after tree is well-established, annual plowing or cultivation after each irrigation +is sufficient. Annual cover crops may be used to build up or maintain soil fertility. Two- +year-old grafts are commonly loaded with burs, and if such grafted trees show a tendency +to bear heavily while young, burs should be thinned out so that very few remain. Otherwise, +trees will grow out of shape and be retarded in their development. Sometimes burs are +picked from trees for 3 or 4 years until trees become well established, before beginning nut +production. With seedlings and grafted trees, a mixture of cvs gives better yield of nuts. If +all burs are filled, tree would not stand the weight nor develop nuts to marketable size. +Many burs are empty and many have few mature nuts, perhaps a provision of nature, rather +than poor pollination. Many trees self-prune (drop) fruits or abort seeds. +Harvesting — Allow burs to mature thoroughly and fall of their own accord. Some cvs +stick, so that shaking or jarring the limbs is useful. In other cvs, burs open, and nuts fall +to ground. Burs which fall and do not open can be made to shed their nuts by pressure of +the feet or by striking with small wooden mallet. Some harvesters use heavy leather gloves +and twist nuts out of burs by hand. Nuts should be picked up every morning and stored in +sacks, if they are to be shipped at once. If they are to be kept for a while, they should be +piled on floor to sweat. Pile should be stirred twice a day for 2 days, and then nuts sacked. +Always store nuts so that air can circulate freely. Do not pile up sacks for any length of +time, as they will heat and mold. If stacking is necessary, place sticks between sacks for +ventilation. In gathering nuts, the collector usually has two pails or containers, one for first- +grade perfect nuts, the other for culls. +Yields and Economics — Yields average from 45 to 136 kg per tree.^^* In 60- to 80- +year-old stands in Russia, yields average 770 kg/ha, up to 1230 kg/ha in better stands. +Italy reports ca. 1100, France ca. 1500 to 2200, and Spain ca. 2800 k g /h a .In the best +years, 5,000 kg/ha are reported.^*® Nuts are marketed to a limited degree, but are mostly +locally cultivated and used.^^^ +Energy — Wood and burs may be used for firewood or for the production of charcoal. +Biotic factors — European chestnut is susceptible to diseases of other chestnuts, especially +susceptible to attacks of leaf fungi.Agriculture Handbook 165"^ reports the following as +affecting C. sativa: Actinopelta dryina (leaf spot), Cronartium cerebrum (rust), Endothia +parasitica (blight), Exosporium fawcettii (canker, dieback), Marssonina ochroleuca (leaf +spot), Melanconis modonia (twig blight), Microsphaera alni (powdery mildew), Phyllactinia +corylea (powdery mildew), Phyllosticta castanea (leaf spot), Phymatotrichum omnivorum +(root rot), Phytophthora cinnamomi (root and collar rot of seedlings), Schizophyllum com­ +mune (sapwood rot), and Stereum versiforme. Browne^^ adds: Fungi — Armillaria mellea, +Cerrena unicolor, Daedalea quercina, Dematophora sp., Diplodina castaneae, Fistulina +hepática. Fames mastoporus, Ganoderma applanatum, G. lucidum, Ilymenochaete rubi­ +ginosa, Inonotus cuticularis, /. dryadeus, Laetiporus sulphureus, Microsphaera alphitoides, +Mycosphaerella castanicola, Phyllactinia guttata, Phytophthora cactorum, P. cambivora, +P. cinnamomi, P. syringae, Polyporus rubidus, P. squamosus, P. tulipiferae, Rhizinia +inflata, Rosellinia radiciperda, Sclerotinia candolleana, Stereum hirsutum. Valsa ambiens, +Verticillium alboatrum; Angiospermae — Viscum album; Coleóptera — Attelabus nitens. +Platypus cylindrus, Prionus coriareus, Xyleborus dispar; Hemiptera — Lachnus roboris, +Myzocallis castanicola, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus; Lepidoptera — Carcina quercana, +Euproctis scintillans, Lithocolletis messaniella, Pammene fasciana, Suana concolor; and +Mammalia — Dama dama, Sciurus carolinensis. +93 +CASTANOSPERMUM AUSTRALE A.Cunn. et Fräs. (FABACEAE) — Moreton Bay Chest­ +nut, Black Bean Tree +Uses — Australian aborigines processed the seeds for food. Of its edibility, Allen and +Allen* say, “ The edibility of the roasted seed of C. australe, often equated with that of the +European chestnut, has been overestimated. Some writers rate its edibility about equal to +that of acorns, or as acceptable only under dire circumstances of need and hunger . . . The +astringency of fresh seeds is reduced or removed by soaking and roasting, although even +after such treatment ill effects are known to occur.“ * Commonly cultivated in Australia in +home gardens and as a street tree, this species is well known in the timber trade as Black +Bean. In view of the shape and configuration of the seeds, I believe “ Brown Buns” would +be more appropriate. The timber dresses well and is regarded as a heavy cabinet timber. +Before synthetics, the wood was used for electrical switchboards, because of its particularly +high resistance to the passage of electric current. The wood is also used in inlays, panels, +umbrella handles, ceilings, plywood, and carved jewel boxes. In South Africa, it is frequently +cultivated for shade and as an oramental, suitable for planting along suburban sidewalks. +Around Sydney, Australia, they have become popular as a house plant for short term +decoration.The NAS^^^ classifies this as a “ vanishing timber” , used sometimes as a +walnut substitute (750 kg/m^). +Folk medicine — Extracts have given negative antibiotic tests. According to the Threat­ +ened Plants Newsletter,"^"^^ 100 kg of seed were shipped to the U.S. for cancer and AIDS +research, research which is suggesting anti-AIDS activity, in vitro at least. In a letter (1987), +Dr. K. M. Snader, of the National Institutes of Health,tells me, “ I do not at this moment +know if castanospermine will become an AIDS treatment, but it is showing some activity +in our screening systems. Indeed, there is enough interest to want to look further at the +pharmacology and to explore other products with either similar structures or with the same +mechanism of action.” +Chemistry — Australian cattle fatalities are reported from grazing the fallen seed during +dry periods (mostly October to December). Unfortunately, the cattle may develop a liking +for the seed. Also, with the leaves, cattle becoming fond of them may pine away and die +if deprived of them.^^^ Seeds contain the triterpenoid castanogenin. The structure is outlined +in Hager’s Handbook. ^*^ The wood contains bay in (C2H20O9) and bayogenin. Castanospermine +94 +Handbook of Nuts +is said to inhibit alpha- and beta-glucosidases, beta-xylosidase, and to inhibit syncytra +formation in HIV-infected CD4 positive cells/"^^ According to Saul et al./^® castanospermine +decreases cytoplasmic glycogen in vivo in rats, showing a dose-dependent decrease in alpha- +glucosidase activity in the liver (50% at 250 mg/kg), spleen (50% at 250), kidney (48% at +250), and brain (55% at 50 mg/kg). At doses of 2,000 mg/kg, the rats experienced diarrhea +(reversible with diet) with decreased weight gain and liver size. With the HIV, there is a +dose-dependent decrease in syncytium formation (H9 human aneuploid neoplastic cells +infected with HIV) with complete inhibition at 100 |xg/m€. Apparently, it affects the envelope +protein, not the CD4 receptor glycoprotein. At 50 p-g/mi, it inhibits the cell death of infected +cells. And there is a dose-dependent decrease in extracellular virus (a million-fold at 200 +pg/ m€ ) . ^ ^ 2 +Toxicity — The unpleasant purgative effects of fresh seeds and their indigestibility are +attributed to the 7% saponin content. Later writers question the presence of saponin. The +sawdust irritates the nasal mucosa.^ Brand et al.'^^ report an uninspiring 79% water, 3.2% +protein, 0.7 g fat, and 0.5 g fiber. Menninger^®^ quotes one of his sources, “ Recently 14 +Air Force personnel were admitted to the hospital after being on a survival mission and +eating the seed.” +Description — Tall, glabrous, slow-growing, evergreen trees to 45 m tall, 1 to 2 m DBH. +Leaves large, imparipinnate; leaflets large, 8 to 17, glossy, short-petioled, elliptic, tapering, +leathery; stipels absent. Flowers large, orange-to-reddish yellow, in short, loose racemes in +the axils of old branches; bracts minute; braceteoles none; calyx thick, large, colored; teeth +broad, very short; standard obovate-orbicular, narrowed into a claw, recurved; wings and +keel petals shorter than the standard, free, subsimilar, erect, oblong; stamens 10, free; anthers +linear, versatile; ovary long-stalked, many-ovuled; style incurved; stigma terminal, blunt. +Pod elongated, 18 to 25 cm long, subfalcate, turgid, leathery to woody, 2-valved, valves +hard, thick, spongy inside between the 2 to 6, large, globose, chestnut-brown seeds.® Seeds +2 to 4 cm broad. Fruiting February to April in Australia. +Germplasm — Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, Moreton Bay chestnut, +or CVS thereof, should tolerate some salt. It tolerates shade and some drought, but little frost. +(2n = 26.) +Distribution — Only of local importance in its native Australia and New Caledonia. +Native to the tablelands of northeast Australia, Queensland, and New South Wales. Intro­ +duced into Sri Lanka ca. 1874. Introduced and surviving as far as 35°S in Australia. Now +somewhat common in India and the East Indies. Planted as an ornamental in the warmer +and more humid parts of South Africa. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Rain through Tropical Dry to +Wet Forest Life Zones, this species is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 60 +dm, annual temperature of 20 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. Apparently damaged by heavy +frost (but tolerating 0°C in Sydney). Usually in coastal or riverine forests. Best suited to +rich loam, it will succeed on sandy, less-fertile soils. +Cultivation — Seeds should be sown fresh and barely covered (1 to 2 cm) with soil. +They should germinate in 10 to 21 days when planted at 20 to 30°C. They can be held 6 +to 8 months at 4°C. +Harvesting — For reasons not fully understood, the tree often fails to fruit where it has +been introduced as an ornamental. For example, it grows well at Singapore and Manila, +apparently without fruiting. Some West Indian introductions have fruited at ca. 20 years of +age. The seeds may be steeped in water for 8 to 10 days, then dried in the sun, roasted on +hot stones, pounded, and ground into meal. +Yields and economics — Data provided me by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) indicate +that one could obtain 100 g pure castanospermine from 1,(X)0 lb seed, suggesting yields of +0.0(X)2203% or ca. 2 ppm. Before the NCI AIDS announcement July 24, 1987, the Sigma +95 +Chemical Company was offering castanospermine at $22.60 to $23.80 per mg or $89.50 to +$94.20 per 5 mg, which translates to $8 million to $10 million per pound. There is a newly +published synthesis which can produce 100 mg and four isomers for $10,000. So the price +will come down. +Energy — The wood has a density of 800 kg/m^. If the seed contains only 2 ppm +castanospermine, most of the residual biomass could be used for fuel. +Biotic factors — The timber is subject to wood-rotting fungi and to termites. The sapwood +is subject to beetle attack. Apparently omithophilous (pollinated by birds) and distributed +by water. Nodulation and rhizobia have not yet been reported.^ +96 Handbook of Nuts +CEIBA PENTANDRA (L.) Gaertn. (BOMBACACEAE) — Kapok, Silk Cotton Tree +Syn: Eriodendron anfractuosum DC. and Bombax pentandrum L. +Uses — Valued as a honey plant. Young leaves are sometimes cooked as a potherb. In +the Cameroons, even the flowers are eaten. I have used the water from the superficial roots +when clean drinking water was unavailable.^® Silky fiber from pods used for stuffing pro­ +tective clothing, pillows, lifesavings devices; as insulation material, mainly against heat and +cold, because of its low thermal conductivity, and sound, and for caulking various items, +as canoes. Fiber contains 61 to 64% cellulose, the rest lignin and other substances, including +a toxic substance, making it resistant to vermin and mites. Wrapped around the trunk of a +fruit tree, it is supposed to discourage leaf-cutting ants. Fiber is white or yellowish, cylin­ +drical, each a single cell with a bulbous base, resilient, water-resistant, with buoyance +superior to that of cork. The floss, irritating to the eyes, is used to stuff life-preservers, +mattresses, pillows, saddles, etc., and it also used as tinder. In the U.S., baseballs may be +filled with kapok. Mixed with other fibers, like cotton, it is used in the manufacture of +carpets, laces, felt hats, “ cotton” , fireworks, and plushes. Fiber can be bleached or dyed +like cotton. Seeds are the source of an oil (20 to 25% in seed, about 40% in kernel), used +for illumination, for soap making, or as a lubricant. Seed oil roughly comparable to peanut +oil; used for the same purposes as refined cotton-seed oil. West Africans use the seeds, +pounded and ground to a meal, in soups, etc. Roasted seeds are eaten like peanuts. Some +people sprout the seeds before eating them. The young fruits are a vegetable like okra. +Expressed cake serves for fodder. The timber, though little used, is said to be excellent at +planing, sanding, and resistance to screw-splitting. Used for boxes, matches, toys, drums, +furniture, violins, dugouts (said to float even when capsized), and for tanning leather. Shaping +and boring qualities are poor, turning very +97 +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,Ceiba is used in folk remedies for nasal +polyps and tumors. Reported to be antidiarrheic, astringent, diuretic, emetic, and emollient, +Ceiba pentandra is a folk remedy for bowel disorders, foot ailments, female troubles, +headache, hydropsy, leprosy, neuralgia, parturition, spasm, sprain, swelling, tumors, and +wounds.^’ The Bayano Cuna use the bark in medicine for female troubles. The roots are +used in treating leprosy. A bath of a bark infusion is supposed to improve the growth of +hair (Colombia). The same infusion is given to cattle after delivery to help shed the placenta.^® +Gum used as tonic, alterative, astringent, or laxative. Young leaves are emollient. Roots +used as diuretic and against scorpion stings. Juice of roots used as a cure for diabetes. +Ayurvedics used the alexeiteric gum for blood diseases, hepatitis, obesity, pain, splenosis, +and tumors. Yunani use the leaves for boils and leprosy, the gum and/or the root for +biliousness, blood diseases, dysuria, and gonorrhea, considering them antipyretic, aphro­ +disiac, diuretic, fattening, and tonic. Others in India use the roots for anasarca, ascites, +aphrodisia, diarrhea, and dysentery; the taproot for gonorrhea and dysentery; the gum for +menorrhagia, and urinary incontinence in children.Malayans use the bark for asthma and +colds. Javanese mix the bark with areca, nutmeg, and sugar candy for bladder stones. +Liberians use the infusion as a mouthwash. In Singapore, leaves are mixed with onion and +turmeric in water for coughs. Javanese use the leaf infusion for catarrh, cough, hoarseness +and urethritis. Cambodians use the leaves to cure migraine and inebriation. In French Guiana, +flowers are decocted for constipation. In Reunion, the bark is used as an emetic. Annamese +also use the bark as emetic, the flowers for lochiorrhea and plague, the seed oil as an +emollient. West Indians use the leaves in baths and poultices for erysipelas, sprained or +swollen feet, and to relieve fatigue. The tea is drunk for colic and inflammation. French- +speaking West Indians take the root decoction as a diuretic. Latin Americans apply the bark +to wounds and indolent ulcers, using the inner bark decoction as antispasmodic, diuretic, +emetic, and emmenagogue, and for gonorrhea and hemorrhoids.Colombians use the leaf +decoction as a cataplasm or bath for boils, infected insect bites and the like.'®^ Nigerians +use the seed oil for rheumatism.Bark extracts show curare-like action on anesthetized cat +nerves. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 530 calories, 30.4 to 33.2 g +protein, 23.1 to 39.2 g fat, 21.6 to 38.3 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 to 19.6 g fiber, 6.1 to +8.2 g ash, 230 to 470 mg Ca, 970 to 1269 mg Contains little or no gossypol, the seeds +contain 20 to 25% (kernel, ca. 40%) oil. The percentages of fatty acids in the oil are oleic, +43.0; linoleic, 31.3; palmitic, 9.77; stearic, 8.0; arachidic, 1.2; and lignoceric, 0.23. Analysis +of the seed-cake gave the following values: moisture, 13.8; crude protein, 26.2; fat, 7.5; +carbohydrate, 23.2; fiber, 23.2; and ash, 6.1%; nutrient ratio, 1:1.5; food units, 107. Analysis +of a sample from Indo-China gave: nitrogen, 4.5; phosphoric acid, 1.6; potash, 1.5%. +Analysis of the wood gave: moisture, 9.8; ash, 5.9; fats and waxes, 0.62; cellulose, 68.3; +and lignone, 25.2%. The yield of bleached pulp was 30%. Destructive distillation of wood +from West Africa gave: charcoal, 28.4; crude pyroligneous acid, 43.7; tar, 12.8; and acetic +acid, 2.3%.^° The floss contains pentosans and uronic anhydrides. Root and stem bark +contain HCN. Leaves contain quercetin, camphorol, caffeic acid, and resin. Bark contains +up to 10.82% tannin. +Toxicity — The air-borne floss can induce allergy and conjunctivitis. +Description — Deciduous, umbraculiform, buttressed, armed or unarmed, medium to +large trees to 70 m tall, more often to 33 m tall, spines conical when young; branches +horizontal in whorls and prickly when young; leaves alternate, stipulate, long-petiolate, +palmately compound with 5 to 11 leaflets, these elliptic or lanceolate, acuminate, entire or +toothed, up to 16 cm long, 4 cm broad; flowers nudiflorous, numerous, in axillary dense +clusters or fascicles on pedicels 8 cm long, near ends of branches; calyx 5-lobed, 1 to 1.5 +cm long, green, bell-shaped, persistent; petals 5, fleshy, forming a short tube and spreading +98 Handbook of Nuts +out to form a showy flower 5 to 6 cm in diameter; cream-colored, malodorous; stamens +united into a 5-branched column 3 to 5 cm long; ovary 5-celled; fruit a 5-valved capsule, +ellipsoid, leathery, 20 to 30 cm long, about 8 cm in diameter, filled with numerous balls +of long silky wool, each enclosing a seed; seeds black, obovoid, enveloped in copious, +shining silky hairs arising from inner walls of capsule. Flowers December to January; fruits +March to April. +Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia, Africa, and Middle America +Centers of Diversity, kapok, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, heat, +insects, laterite, low pH, slope, and virus.The Indonesian cv ‘Reuzenrandoe’ (giant kapok) +bears some characteristics of the var. caribaea. “ Some authors believe in an Ameri­ +can/African origin of the kapok tree. If America is the sole center of origin, then the African +center is secondary. The African kapok tree is divided into the caribaea-forest type and the +caribaea-savannah type. The latter type, which has a broadly spreading crown, is planted +in market places. It is possible that this type arose from cuttings of plagiotropic branches. +Some research has gone into developing whiter floss, indehiscent pods, and spineless trunks. +Trees are quite variable in the spininess of the stem, habit of branching, color of flowers, +size of fruits, manner of fruit opening, and length, color, and resiliency of fibers of floss. +Based on these characteristics, three varieties are recognized: var. indica, Indian forms; var. +caribaea, American forms; and var. africana, African form s.(2n = 72,80,82) +Distribution — Probably native to tropical America; widely distributed in hotter parts of +western and southern India, Andaman Islands, Burma, Malaysia, Java, Indochina, and +southeast Asia, North Borneo; cultivated in Java.^^^ According to Zeven and Zhukovsky, +it was believed that the kapok tree originated in an area which was later divided by the +Atlantic Ocean, so this species is native both to America and Africa. This conclusion is +based mainly on the great variability of this plant and on the high frequency of dominant +inherited characteristics in these two continents. Another thought is that seeds may have +come from America in prehistoric times and that later introduction increased the variability. +Because of its chromosome number, a polyploid origin is suggested. If this supposition is +correct, the kapok tree can only have arisen in that area where its parents occur. As all other +Ceiba species are restricted to America, this would also indicate an American origin. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Thom to Wet Forest +Life Zones, kapok is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 42.9 dm (mean of +134 cases = 15.2), annual temperature of 18.0 to 28.5°C (mean of 129 cases = 25.2°C), +and pH of 4.5 to 8.7 (mean of 45 cases = 6.7).^^ Hardy to Zone 10."^^^ It thrives best in +monsoon climates below 500 m altitude. Where night temperatures are below 20°C, fmits +do not set. Trees damaged by high winds and waterlogging. Requires well-drained soil, in +areas with annual rainfall of 125 to 150 cm, with abundant rainfall during the growing +season and a dry period from time of flowering until pods ripen. In Java, commonly grown +around margins of fields and along roadsides. +Cultivation — On plantations, kapok is usually propagated from seeds of high-yielding +trees. Planted in nurseries about 30 cm apart, seedlings are moved to the field when about +9 months old, topping them to 125 cm. Field spacings of about 6.5 are recommended. +Sometimes trees are propagated from cuttings.In Indonesia, cuttings are set in a nursery +for a year and then transplanted at the beginning of the rainy season. The first harvest is +usually 3 years later. +Harvesting — Since pods are usually handpicked by climbers, before they dehisce, much +hand-labor is involved. Trees begin to fruit when 3 to 6 years old. For kapok, natives harvest +the unopened pods with hooked knives on long poles. Since pods do not ripen simultaneously, +it is necessary to harvest two or three times a year, before the pods open. Fruits are sun- +dried and split open with mallets. The floss is removed with the seeds, and the seeds separated +out by beating with a stick. In Java and the Philippine Islands, machines are employed for +99 +cleaning the floss. Floss is pressed into bales for export; these are generally packed in gunny +cloth, and vary in weight from 80 to 120 lbs and are 8 to 16 ft^ in volume. +Yields and economics — Trees 4 to 5 years old yield nearly a kilogram of floss, whereas +full-grown trees, 15 years old, may yield 3 to 4 kg.'^^ Some trees may bear for 60 years or +more and may yield 4,500 g kapok per year. It takes 170 to 220 pods to give a kilogram +of floss. An adult tree may produce 1000 to 4000 fruits, suggesting a potential yield of 5 +to 20 kg floss per tree. If the ratios prevail in kapok that prevail in cotton, we would expect +that to correspond to 8 to 30 kg seed, or 2 to 7.5 kg oil per tree. In 1950, Indonesia produced +5,000 MT kapok, 6,500 in 1951, 6,600 in 1952, 7,000 in 1953, exporting ca. 5,000 MT +a year.Indonesia has produced as much as 16,000 MT kapok oil per year. Until World +War II, Indonesia was the major producer; Ecuador exported over 1.25 million lbs in 1938. +Today, Thailand produces about half of the 22 million kg of kapok produced, with the U.S. +the largest consumer, using about half. Other exporters include Cambodia, East Africa, +India, Indonesia, and Pakistan. +Energy — The seed oil, used for cooking, lamps, lubrication, paints, and soaps, might +serve, like the peanut, as a diesel substitute. Six trees could produce a barrel of oil renewably. +As firewood, it is of no value, as it only smoulders, but the smouldering is sometimes put +to use in fumigation.The specific gravity of the wood is 0.920 to 0.933.^^"^ +Biotic factors — The following fungi attack kapok trees: Armillaria mellea, Calonectria +rigidiuscula, Camillea bomba, C. sagraena, Cercospora ceibae, C. italica, Chaetothyrium +ceibae, Coniothyrium ceibae, Corticium salmonicolor, Corynespora cassiicola, Daldinia +angolensis, Fornes applanatus, F. lignosas, F. noxius, Glomerella cingulata, Phyllosticta +eriodendri, Physalospora rhodina, Polyporus occidentalis, P. zonalis, Polystictus occiden- +talis, P. sanguineus, Pycnoporus coccincus, Ramularia eriodendri, Schizophyllum com­ +mune, Septoria ceibae, Thanatephorus cucumeris, Ustulina deusta, and U. zonata. The +bacterium, Xanthomonas malvacearum, also infests trees. The parasite, Dendropthoefalcata, +also occurs on the tree. The following viruses attack kapok: Cacao virus lA, 1C, and IM; +Offa Igbo (Nigeria) cacao. Swollen Shoot, and viruses of Adansonia digitata. Nematodes +isolated by kapok include: Helicotylenchus cóncavas, H. multicinctus, H. retasas, H. pseu- +dorobastus, H. dihystera, H. cavenessi, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. javanica, Pratylenchas +brachyaras, P. delattrei, Scatellonema brachyurus, S. clathricaudatum, Tylenchorhynchus +martini, Xiphinema elongatum, and X. ifacolum.^^^'^^^ +Baker and Harris^^ indicate that the flowers are visited by the fruit bats, Epomorphorus +gambianas, Nanonycteris veldkamp, and Eidolon helvum. Flowers, though bat pollinated, +are visited by bees.^^ Logs and lumber very susceptible to insect attack and decay. The +wood is nearly always turned blue-gray by sap-staining fungi. This can be prevented by +dipping in a fungicide solution shortly after sawing. In addition, Browne^^ lists the following +as affecting this species: Coleóptera — Analeptes trifasciata, Aracceras fasciculatas, Ba- +tocera namitor, B. rufomaculata, Chrysochroa bicolor, Hypomeces sqaamosus, Petrognatha +gigas, Phytoscaphas triangularis, Steirastoma breve, Tragiscoschema bertolonii; Hemiptera +— Delococcas tafoenis, Helopeltis schoutedeni, Icerya nigroarcolata, Planococcoides nja- +lensis, Planococcus citri, P. kenyae, P. lilacinus, Pseudaulacaspis pentágona, Pseudococcus +adonidum, Rastrococcus iceryoides, Saissetia nigra; Lepidoptera — Anomis leona, Ascotis +selenaria, Cryptothelea varié gata, Dasy chira mendosa, Suana concolor, Sylepta derogata; +Thysanoptera — Selenothrips rubrocinctus. +100 Handbook of Nuts +COCOS NUCIFERA L. (ARECACEAE) Coconut +Uses — Coconut is one of the ten most useful trees in the world, providing food for +millions of people, especially in the tropics. At any one time a coconut palm may have 12 +different crops of nuts on it, from opening flower to ripe nut. At the top of the tree is the +growing point, a bundle of tightly packed, yellow-white, cabbage-like leaves, which, if +damaged, causes the entire tree to die. If the tree can be spared, this heart makes a tasty +treat, a ‘millionaire’s salad’. Unopened flowers are protected by sheath, often used to fashion +shoes, caps, even a kind of pressed helmet for soldiers. Opened flowers provide a good +honey for bees. A clump of unopened flowers may be bound tightly together, bent over and +its tip bruised. Soon it begins to “ weep” a steady dripping of sweet juice, up to a gallon +per day, that contains 16 to 30 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g. The cloudy brown liquid is +easily boiled down to syrup, called coconut molasses, then crystallized into a dark sugar, +almost exactly like maple sugar. Sometimes it is mixed with grated coconut for candy. Left +standing, it ferments quickly into a beer with alcohol content up to 8%, called “ toddy” in +India and Sri Lanka; “ tuba” in Philippines and Mexico; and “ tuwak” in Indonesia. After +a few weeks, it becomes a vinegar. “ Arrack” is the product after distilling fermented +“ toddy” and is a common spiritous liquor consumed in the East. The net has a husk, which +is a mass of packed fibers called coir, which can be woven into strong twine or rope, and +is used for padding mattresses, upholstery, and life-preservers. Fiber, resistant to sea water, +is used for cables and rigging on ships, for making mats, rugs, bags, brooms, brushes, and +olive oil filters in Italy and Greece; also used for fires and mosquito smudges. If nut is +101 +allowed to germinate, cavity fills with a spongy mass called “ bread” which is eaten raw +or toasted in the shell over the fire. Sprouting seeds may be eaten like celery. Shell is hard +and fine-grained, and may be carved into all kinds of objects, as drinking cups, dippers, +scoops, smoking pipe bowls, and collecting cups for rubber latex. Charcoal is used for +cooking fires, air filters, in gas masks, submarines, and cigarette tips. Shells burned as fuel +for copra kilns or house-fires. Coconut shell flour is used in industry as a filler in plastics. +Coconut water is produced by a 5-month-old nut, about 2 cups of crystal-clear, cool sweet +(invert sugars and sucrose) liquid, so pure and sterile that during World War II, it was used +in emergencies instead of sterile glucose solution, and put directly into a patient’s veins. +Also contains growth substances, minerals, and vitamins. Boiled toddy, known as jaggery, +with lime makes a good cement. Nutmeat of immature coconuts is like a custard in flavor +and consistency, and is eaten or scraped and squeezed through cloth to yield a “ cream” or +“ milk” used on various foods. Cooked with rice to make Panama’s famous “ arroz con +coco” ; also cooked with taro leaves or game, and used m coffee as cream. Dried, desiccated, +and shredded it is used in cakes, pies, candies, and in curries and sweets. When nuts are +open and dried, meat becomes copra, which is processed for oil, rich in glycerine and used +to make soaps, shampoos, shaving creams, toothpaste lotions, lubricants, hydraulic fluid, +paints, synthetic rubber, plastics, margarine, and in ice cream. In India, the Hindus make +a vegetarian butter called “ ghee” from coconut oil; also used in infant formulas. When +copra is heated, the clear oil separates out easily, and is made this way for home use in +producing countries where it is used in lamps. Cake residue is used as cattle fodder, as it +is rich in proteins and sugars; animals should not have more than 4 to 5 lbs per animal per +day, as butter from milk will have a tallow flavor. As the cake is deficient in calcium, it +should be fed together with calcium-rich foods. Trunk wood is used for building sheds and +other semi-permanent buildings. Outer wood is close-grained, hard, and heavy, and when +well seasoned, has an attractive dark-colored grain adaptable for carving, especially orna­ +mentals, under the name of “ porcupine wood” . Coconut logs should not be used for fences, +as decayed wood makes favorable breeding places for beetles. Logs are used to make rafts. +Sections of stem, after scooping out pith, are used as flumes or gutters for carrying water. +Pith of stem contains starch which may be extracted and used as flour. Pitch from top of +tree is sometimes pickled in coconut vinegar. Coconut leaves made into thin strips are woven +into clothing, furnishings, screens, and walls of temporary buildings. Stiff midribs make +cooking skewers, arrows, brooms, brushes, and used for fish traps. Leaf fiber is used in +India to make mats, slippers, and bags. Used to make short-lived torches. Coconut roots +provide a dye, a mouthwash, a medicine for dysentery, and frayed out, it makes toothbrushes; +scorched, it is used as coffee substitute. Coconut palm is useful as an ornamental; its only +drawback being the heavy nuts which may cause injury to man, beast, or rooftop when they +hit in falling. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,coconuts are used in folk remedies for tumors. +Reported to be anthelmintic, antidotal, antiseptic, aperient, aphrodisiac, astringent, bacter­ +icidal, depurative, diuretic, hemostat, pediculicide, purgative, refrigerant, stomachic, styp­ +tic, suppurative, and vermifuge, coconut — somewhere or other — is a folk remedy for +abscesses, alopecia, amenorrhea, asthma, blenorrhagia, bronchitis, bruises, bums, cachexia, +calculus, colds, constipation, cough, debility, dropsy, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, earache, +erysipelas, fever, flu, gingivitis, gonorrhea, hematemesis, hemoptysis, jaundice, menor­ +rhagia, nausea, phythisis, pregnancy, rash, scabies, scurvy, sore throat, stomach-ache, +swelling, syphilis, toothache, tuberculosis, tumors, typhoid, venereal diseases, and wounds. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the kernel is reported to contain 36.3 g H2O, 4.5 g protein, +41.6 g fat, 13.0 g total carbohydrate, 3.6 g fiber, 1.0 g ash, 10 mg Ca, 24 mg P, 1.7 mg +Fe, and traces of beta-carotene.Per 100 g, the green nut is reported to contain 77 to 200 +calories, 68.0 to 84.0 g H2O, 1.4 to 2.0 g protein, 1.9 to 17.4 g fat, 4.0 to 11.7 g total +102 Handbook of Nuts +carbohydrate, 0.4 to 3.7 g fiber, 0.7 to 0.9 g ash, 11 to 42 mg Ca, 42 to 56 mg P, 1.0 to +1.1 mg Fe, 257 mg K, trace of beta-carotene, 0.4 to 0.5 mg thiamine, 0.03 mg riboflavin, +0.8 mg niacin, and 6 to 7 mg ascorbic acid.^^ Coconut oil is one of the least variable among +vegetable fats, i.e., 0.2 to 0.5% caproic-, 5.4 to 9.5 caprylic-, 4.5 to 9.7 capric-, 44.1 to +51.3 lauric-, 13.1 to 18.5 myristic, 7.5 to 10.5 palmitic-, 1.0 to 3.2 stearic-, 0 to 1.5 +arachidic-, 5.0 to 8.2 oleic-, and 1.0 to 2.6 linoleic-acids.^® Following oil extraction from +copra, the coconut cake (poonac) contains 10.0 to 13.3% moisture, 6.0 to 26.7% oil, 14.3 +to 19.8% protein, 32.8 to 45.3% carbohydrates, 8.9 to 12.2% fibers, and 4.0 to 5.7% ash. +The so-called coconut water is 95.5% water, 0.1% protein, <0.1% fat, 0.4% ash, 4.0% +carbohydrate. Per 100 g water, there is 105 mg Na, 312 K, 29 Ca, 30 Mg, 0.1 Fe, 0.04 +Cu, 37 P, 24 S, and 183 mg choline. Leaves contain 8.45% moisture, 4.28% ash, 0.56% +K^O, 0.25 P2O3. 0.28 CaO, and 0.57% MgO.^« +Description — Palm to 27 m or more tall, bearing crown of large pinnate leaves; trunk +stout, 30 to 45 cm in diameter, straight or slightly curved, rising from a swollen base +surrounded by a mass of roots; rarely branched, marked with rings of leaf scars; leaves 2 +to 6 m long, pinnatisect, leaflets 0.6 to 1 m long, narrow, tapering; inflorescence in axil of +each leaf as spathe enclosing a spadix 1.3 to 2 m long, stout, straw- or orange-colored, +simply branched; female flowers numerous, small, sweet-scented, borne toward the top of +panicle; fruit ovoid, 3-angled, 15 to 30 cm long, containing a single seed; exocarp a thick, +fibrous husk, enclosing a hard, boney endocarp or shell. Adhering to the inside wall of the +endocarp is the testa with thick albuminous endosperm, the coconut meat; embryo below +one of the three pores at end of fruit, cavity of endosperm filled in unripe fruit with watery +fluid, the coconut water, and only partially filled when ripe. Flowers and fruits year-round +in the tropics. +Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia and Hindustani centers of origin, +coconut has been reported to tolerate high pH, heat, insects, laterites, low pH, poor soil, +salt, sand, and slope.Many classifications have been proposed for coconuts; none is wholly +satisfactory. Variations are based on height, tall or dwarf; color of plant or fruit; size of nut +(some palms have very large fruits, others have large numbers of small fruits); shape of +nuts, varying from globular to spindle-shaped or with definite triangular sections; thickness +of husk or shell; type of inflorescence; and time required to reach maturity. Many botanical +varieties and forms have been recognized and named, using some of the characteristics +mentioned above. Cultivars have been developed from various areas. Dwarf palms, occurring +in India as introductions from Malaysia, live about 30 to 35 years, thrive in rich soils and +wet regions, flower and fruit much earlier than tall varieties, and come into bearing by the +fourth year after planting. However, dwarf varieties are not grown commercially, and only +on a limited scale, because of their earliness and tender nuts — which yield a fair quantity +of coconut water. They are highly susceptible to diseases and are adversly affected by even +short periods of drought. Tall coconuts are commonly grown for commercial purposes, living +80 to 90 years. They are hardy, thrive under a variety of soil, climatic, and cultural conditions, +and begin to flower when about 8 to 10 years after planting. (2n = 16.)^^^ +Distribution — Now pan-tropical, especially along tropical shorelines, where floating +coconuts may volunteer, the coconut’s origin is shrouded in mysteries, vigorously debated. +According to Purseglove,^^^ the center of origin of cocoid palms most closely related to +coconut is in northwestern South America. At the time of the discovery of the New World, +coconuts (as we know them today) were confined to limited areas on the Pacific coast of +Central America, and absent from the Atlantic shores of the Americas and Africa. Coconuts +drifted as far north as Norway are still capable of germination. The wide distribution of +coconut has no doubt been aided by man and marine currents as well. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet +Forest Life Zones, coconut has been reported from stations with an annual precipitation of +103 +7 to 42 dm (mean of 35 cases = 20.5), annual temperature of 21 to 30°C (mean of 35 cases += 25.7°C) with 4 to 12 consecutive frost-free months, each with at least 60 mm rainfall, +and pH of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 27 cases = 6.0).^^ +Cultivation — Propagated by seedlings raised from fully mature fruits. Seeds selected +from high-yielding stock with desirable traits. Seed-nut trees should have a straight trunk +and even growth, with closely spaced leaf-scars, short fronds, well oriented on the crown, +and short bunch stalks. The inflorescence should bear about 100 female flowers, and the +crown should have a large number of fronds and inflorescences. Seed-nuts should be medium­ +sized and nearly spherical in shape; long nuts usually have too much husk in relation to +kernel. Because male parent is unknown and because female parent is itself heterozygous, +seed-nuts from high-yielding palms do not necessarily reproduce the same performance in +progeny. Records are kept of fruits harvested from each mother palm, such as number of +bunches, number of nuts, weight of husked nuts, estimated weight of copra (about one-third +weight of husked nuts being considered favorable). After fully mature nuts are picked (not +allowed to fall), they are tested by shaking to listen for water within. Under-ripe or spoiled +nuts or those with no water, or with insect or disease damage are discarded. Nuts are planted +right away in nursery or stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated shed until they can be planted. +Seeds planted in nursery facilitate selection of best to put in field, as only half will produce +a high-yielding palm for copra. Also, watering and insect control is much easier to manage +in nursery. Soil should be sandy or light loamy, free from waterlogging, but close to source +of water, and away from heavy shade. Nursery should have long raised beds 20 to 25 cm +high, separated by shallow drains to carry away excessive water. Beds should be dug and +loosened to a depth of 30 cm. Loosened soil mixed with dried or rotten leaves and ash from +burnt fresh coconut husks at a rate of 25 lbs. of husk-ash per 225 ft.^ Nuts spaced in beds +ca. 20 X 30 cm, a hectare of nursery accommodating 100,000 seed-nuts. Nuts planted +horizontally produce better seedlings than those planted vertically. The germinating eye is +placed uppermost in a shallow furrow, about 15 cm deep, and soil mounded up around, but +not completely covering them, leaving the eye exposed. Soaking nuts in water for 1 to 2 +weeks before planting may benefit germination; longer periods of soaking are progressively +disadvantageous. Bright sunlight is best for growing stout sturdy seedlings. Regular watering +in the nursery is essential in dry weather. Mulching may preserve moisture and suppress +weeds. Paddy straw, woven coconut leaves, and just coconut leaves are used; however, they +might encourage termites. Potash fertilizer may help seedlings which probably do not need +other fertilizers, the nut providing most of needed nutrition. About 16 weeks after the nut +is planted, the shoot appears through the husk, and at about 30 weeks, when 3 seed-leaves +have developed, seedlings should be planted out in permanent sites. Rigorous culling of +seedlings is essential. All late germinators and very slow growers are discarded. Robust +plants, showing normal rapid growth, straight stems, broad, comparatively short, dark-green +leaves with prominent veins, spreading outward and not straight upward, and those free of +disease symptoms, are selected for planting out. Best spacing depends upon soil and terrain. +Usually 9 to 10 m on the square is used, planting 70 to 150 trees per ha; with triangular +spacing of 10 m, 115 palms per ha; and for group or bouquet planting, 3 to 6 palms planted +4 to 5 m apart. Holes 1 m wide and deep should be dug 1 to 3 months before seedlings are +transplanted. In India and Sri Lanka, 300 to 400 husks are burned in each hole, providing +4 to 5 kg ash per hole. This is mixed with topsoil. Two layers of coconut husks are put into +the bottom of the hole before filling with the topsoil-mixed ash. Muriate of potash, 1 kg +per hole, is better than ash, but increases cost of planting. The earth settles so that it will +be 15 to 30 cm below ground level when seedling is planted. In planting, soil should be +well-packed around nut, but should not cover collar of seedling, nor get into leaf axils. As +plant develops, trunk may be earthed up, until soil is flush with general ground level. Usually +7 to 8 month old seedlings are used for transplants, best done in the rainy season. In some +104 Handbook of Nuts +instances plants up to 5 years old are used, as they are more resistant to termite damage. If +older plants are used, care must be taken not to damage roots, as they are slow to recover. +In areas with only one rainy season per year, it is simpler to plant nuts in the nursery in +one rainy season, and transplant them a year later. Young plantation should be fenced to +protect plants from cattle, goats, or other wild animals. Entire areas may be fenced in. In +Sri Lanka and southern India, piles of coconut husks are placed around the tree. At the end +of the first year after transplanting, vacancies should be filled with plants of the same age +held in reserve in nursery. Also any slow-growers, or disease-damaged plants should be +replaced. During the first 3 years, seedlings should be watered during drought, at about 16 +liters per tree twice a week. Keep trees clear of weeds, especially climbers. Usually a circle +1 to 2 m in radius should be weeded several times a year, the weeds left as mulch. Cover- +crops, as Centrosema pubescens, Calopogonium mucunoides, or Pueraria phaseoloides, are +used and turned under before dry season. Catch-crops such as cassava {Manihot utilissima), +and green gram {Vigna aureus) and cowpea {Vigna unguiculata), bananas and pineapples, +may be used. Sometimes bush crops, in addition to or instead of, ground covers are used +as green manures, e.g., Tephrosia Candida, Crotalaria striata, C. uraramoensis, C. ana- +gyroides — all fast growers. Gliricidia sepium and Erythrina lithosperma may be grown as +hedges or live fences, their loppings used as green manure. Usually the cheapest form of +fertilizer materials are used, consisting of 230 to 300 g N, 260 to 460 g P2O5, and 300 to +670 g K2O per palm. Lime is generally not recommended. There is no evidence that salt is +beneficial, as sometimes claimed. Coconuts can withstand a degree of salinity, about 0.6%, +which is lethal to many other crops. Needing some magnesium, the palms are extremely +sensitive to an excess. Cultivation depends on soil type, slope of land, and rainfall distri­ +bution. Disk-harrowing at end of moonsoon rains may be all that is necessary to control +weeds. +Harvesting — Trees begin to yield fruit in 5 to 6 years on good soils, more likely 7 to +9 years, and reach full bearing in 12 to 13 years. Fruit-set to maturity is 8 to 10 months; +12 months from setting of female flowers. Nuts must be harvested fully ripe for making +copra or desiccated coconut. For coir they are picked about one month short of maturity, +so that husks will be green. Coconuts are usually picked by human climbers, or cut by +knives attached to the end of long bamboo poles. With the pole, a man can pick some 250 +palms in a day — by climbing, only 25. In some areas nuts are allowed to fall naturally +and collected regularly. Nuts are husked in the field, a good husker handling 2,000 nuts per +day. Then the nut is split (up to 10,OCX) nuts per working day). Copra may be cured by sun­ +drying, or by kiln-drying, or by a combination of both. Sun-drying requires 6 to 8 consecutive +days of good bright sunshine to dry meat without its spoiling. Drying reduces moisture +content from 50% to below 7%. Copra is stored in a well-ventilated, dry area. Extraction +of oil from copra is one of the oldest seed-crushing industries of the world. Coconut cake +is usually retained to feed domestic livestock. When it contains much oil, it is not fed to +milk cows, but it used as fertilizer. Desiccated coconut is just the white meat; the brown +part is peeled off. It is usually grated, then dried in driers similar to those for tea. Good +desiccated coconut should be white in color, crisp, with a fresh nutty flavor, and should +contain less than 20% moisture and 68 to 72% oil, the extracted oil containing less than +0.1% of free fatty acid, as lauric. Parings, about 12 to 15% of kernels, are dried and pressed +yielding about 55% oil, used locally for soap-making. The resulting residue “ poonac” is +used for feeding cattle. Coconut flour is made from desiccated coconut with oil removed, +and the residue dried and ground. However, it does not keep well. Coir fiber is obtained +from slightly green coconut husks by retting in slightly saline water that is changed frequently +(requires up to 10 months); then, husks are rinsed with water and fiber separated by beating +with wooden mallets. After drying, the fiber is cleaned and graded. The greater part of coir +produced in India is spun into yam, a cottage industry, and then used for mgs and ropes. +105 +In Sri Lanka, most coir consists of mechanically separated mattress and bristle fiber. To +produce this, husks are soaked or retted for 1 to 4 weeks, and then crushed between iron +rollers before fibers are separated. Bristle fibers are 20 to 30 cm long; anything shorter is +sold as superior mattress fiber. In some areas, dry milling of husks, without retting, is +carried on and produces only mattress fiber. The separated pith, called bast or dust, is used +as fertilizer since the potash is not leached out. Coconuts may be stored at a temperature of +0 to 1.5°C with relative humidity of 75% or less for 1 to 2 months. In storage, they are +subject to mold, loss in weight and drying up of the nut milk. They may be held for 2 weeks +at room temperature without serious loss.'^ +Yields and economics — For copra, an average of 6,000 nuts are required for 1 ton; +1,000 nuts yield 500 lbs. of copra, which yields 250 lbs. of oil. The average yield of copra +per ha is 3 to 4 tons. Under good climatic conditions, a fully productive palm produces 12 +to 16 bunches of coconuts per year, each bunch with 8 to 10 nuts, or 60 to 100 nuts per +tree. Bunches ripen in about 1 year, and should yield 25 kg or more copra. For coir, 1,000 +husks yield about 80 kg per year, giving about 25 kg of bristle fiber and 55 kg of mattress +fiber. Efficient pressing will yield from 100 kg of copra, approximately 62.5 kg of coconut +oil, and 35 kg coconut cake, which contains 7 to 10% oil. The factor 63% is generally used +for converting copra to oil equivalent. Yields of copra as high as 5 MT/ha have been reported, +but oil yields of 900 to 1,350 kg/ha have been reported. Pryde and Doty^^° put the average +oil yield at 1,050 kg/ha, Telek and M artin,at 600 kg/ha. World production of coconut +oil is more than 2 million tons/year, about half of which moves in international trade. Sri +Lanka, Philippine Islands, Papua, and New Guinea are the largest producers. Only about +40% of copra produced is exported, the remaining 60% processed into oil in the country of +origin. The U.S. annually imports 190 million pounds of coconut oil and more than 650 +million pounds of copra; some sources state 300,000 tons copra and over 200,000 tons +coconut oil annually. +Energy — The coconut of commerce weighs 0.5 to 1.0 kg. According to Purseglove,^^^ +the average number of nuts per hectare varies from 2,500 to 7,500, indicating a yield of +ca. 1,200 to 7,500 kg/ha. On the one hand, ‘Jamaica Tails’ fruits average 1.7 kg, nuts 0.7 +kg, of which 50% is endosperm; on the other hand, ‘Malayan Dwarfs’ fruits average 1.1 +kg, the nut 0.6 kg, yielding 0.2 kg copra (6,000 nuts per ton copra). Average production +yields of copra (3 to 8 nuts per kg copra) range from 200 kg/ha in Polynesia to 1,200 kg/ha +in the Philippines, suggesting coconut yields of 1,000 to 8,000 kg/ha. Since about 60% of +this constitutes the inedible fruit husk and seed husks, I estimate the chaff factor at 0.6. +Coconut oil, cracked at high temperatures, will yield nearly 50% motor fuel and diesel fuel. +Coconut destructive distillation is reported to yield 11.5% charcoal, 11% fuel gas, 37.5% +copra spirit, 12.5% olein distillate, 1% crude acetate, 0.15% glycerol, and 0.85% acetone +plus methanol.^® As of June 15, 1981, coconut oil was $0.275/lb., compared to $0.38 for +peanut oil, $1.39 for poppy seed oil, $0.65 for tung oil, $0.33 for linseed oil, $0,265 for +cotton-seed oil, $0,232 for com oil, and $0.21 for soybean oil.^^^ At $2.00 per gallon, +gasoline is roughly $0.25/lb. Quick^^"^ tested linseed oil (Iodine number 180) which cokes +up fuel injectors inless than 20 hr: and rapeseed oil (Iodine number ca.lOO) which logs into +the hundreds of hours before the onset of severe injector coking. Coconut oil (Iodine number +10) should be a very good candidate from this viewpoint. This could be very important in +developing tropical countries where diesel fuel is scarce and often more expensive than +coconut oil. One Australian patent suggests that distillation of coconuts at 550° gave 11.5% +charcoal, 11% fuel gas, and 37.5% copra spirit, 12.5% olein distillate, 12.5% black oil, +1% cmde acetic acid, 0.15% glycerol, and 0.85% (acetone + methanol) which natural +fermentation takes to 2.7-5.8% ethanol. Of course, you can’t have your coconut toddy and +eat or drink or bum it too.®^ +Biotic factors — Coconuts are subject to numerous fungal diseases, bacterial infections, +106 Handbook of Nuts +and the most serious virus-like disease, cadang-cadang.‘^‘ Coconut trees are also attacked +by numerous nematodes and some insect pests, the most damaging insect being the black +beetle or rhinoceros beetle {Oryctes rhinoceros), which damages buds, thus reducing nut +yield, and breeds in decaying refuse. Diseases and pests of a particular area should be +considered and a local agent consulted as to how to deal with them. Agriculture Handbook +No. 165"^ lists the following as affecting this species: Aphelenchoides cocophilus (red ring +disease), Cephalosporium lecanii, Diplodia epicocos, Endocalyx melanoxanthanus, Endo- +conidiophora paradoxa (leaf-bitten disease, leaf scorch, stem-bleeding), Gloeosporium sp., +Pellicularia koleroga (thread blight), Pestalotia palmarum (gray leaf spot, leaf-break), Phom- +opsis cocoes (on nuts), Phyllosticta sp. (on leaves), Physalospora fusca (on leaves), P. +rhodina (on roots and trunk), Phytopthora palmivora (bud rot, leaf drop, wilt), Pythium sp. +(wilt). Stevenson^^® adds: Aschersonia cubensis, Aschersonia turbinata, Botryosphaeria +quercuum, Cytospora palmicola, Escherichia coli, Flammula earlei, Herpotrichia schied- +ermayeriana, Hypocrea rufa, Marasmius sacchari, Pestalotia gibberosa, Pestalotia versi^ +cola, Polyporus lignosus, Polyporus nivosellus, Polyporus zonalis, Rosellinia saintcruciana, +Thielaviopsis paradoxa, Valsa chlorina. +107 +COLA ACUMINATA (Beauv.) Schott and Endl. (STERCULIACEAE) — Kola Nuts, Cola, +Guru +Syn: Sterculia acuminata Beauv. +Uses — Widely used as a flavor ingredient in cola beverages, but has also been used in +baked goods, candy, frozen dairy deserts, gelatins, and puddings. Kola plays an important +role in the social and religious life of Africans. Beverage made by boiling powdered seeds +in water, equal in flavor and nutriment to cocoa. Seeds also used as a condiment. Dye +utilized from red juice. Wood valuable, light in color, porous, and used in ship-building +and general carpentry. Tree often planted as o rn am e n ta l.C o la is said to render putrid +water palatable.®^ +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the powdered bark is used for malignant +tumors and cancer. The tea made from the root is said to alleviate cancer. Reported to be +aphrodisiac, cardiotonic, CNS-stimulant, digestive, diuretic, stimulant, and tonic, kola is a +folk remedy for cancer, hunger, nerves, and tumors.Nuts used as diuretic, heart tonic and +masticatory to resist fatigue, hunger and thirst. A small piece of nut is chewed by Africans +before mealtime to improve digestion. On the other hand, it is chewed as a stimulant and +appetite depressant, e.g., during religious fasts. Jamaicans take grated seed for diarrhea. +Powdered cola is applied to cuts and wounds.Formerly used as a CNS-stimulant and for +diarrhea, migraine, and neuralgia. The fresh drug is used, especially in its native country, +as a stimulant, social drug, being mildly euphoric. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit (ZMB) is reported to contain 399 calories, 5.9 g protein, +1.1 g fat, 90.8 g total carbohydrate, 3.8 g fiber, 2.2 g ash, 156 mg Ca, 232 mg P, 5.4 mg +Fe, 67 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.08 mg thiamine, 0.08 mg riboflavin, 1.62 mg niacin, +and 146 mg ascorbic acid. The aril (ZMB) is reported to contain 371 calories, 9.0 g protein, +3.6 g fat, 86.2 g total carbohydrate, 4.8 g fiber, 1.2 g ash, 18 mg Ca, 102 mg P, 8.4 mg +Fe, 180 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.06 mg thiamine, 0.30 mg riboflavin, 4.19 mg niacin, +and 60 mg ascorbic acid.®’ Contains 1.28 to 3% of fixed oil.^^^ Kola nut important for its +108 Handbook of Nuts +caffeine content and flavor; caffeine content 2.4 to 2.6%. Nuts also contain theobromine +(<0.1%) and other alkaloids, and narcotic properties. Seeds also contain betaine, starch, +tannic acid, catechin, epicatechin, fatty matter, sugar and a fat-decomposing enzyme. From +a bromatological point of view, cola fruits contain, per 100 g, 148 calories, 62.9% water, +2.2 % protein, 0.4% fat, 33.7% carbohydrates, 1.4% fiber, 0.8% ash, 58 mg Ca, 25 mg +carotene, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.03 mg niacin, 0.54 mg riboflavin, and 60 mg ascorbic acid. +Hager’s Handbook suggests 1.5 to 2% caffeine, up to 0.1% theobromine, 0.3 to 0.4% d - +catechin, 0.25% betaine, 6.7% protein, 2.9% sugar, 34% starch, 3% gum, 0.5% fat, 29% +cellulose, and 12% water. +Toxicity — Caffeine in large doses is reported to be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and ter­ +atogenic.^^® Caffeine is also viricidal, suppressing the growth of polio, influenza, herpes +simplex, and vaccinia viruses, but not Japanese encephalitis virus, Newcastle disease, virus, +and type 2 adenovirus.Tyler^^^ produces a chart comparing various caffeine sources to +which I have added rounded figures from Palotti.^"^^ +Source Caffeine +content (mg) +Cup (6 oz.) expresso coffee +310 +Cup (6 oz.) boiled coffee 100 +Cup (6 oz.) instant coffee 65 +Cup (6 oz.) tea 10— 50 +Cup (6 oz.) cocoa 13 +Can (6 oz.) cola 25 +Can (6 oz.) Coca Cola 20 +Cup (6 oz.) mate 25— 50 +Can (6 oz.) Pepsi Cola 10 +Tablet caffeine 100—200 +Tablet (800 mg) Zoom (Paullinia cupana) 60 +In humans, caffeine 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, is demethylated into three primary metabolites: +theophylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine. Since the early part of the 20th century, +theophylline has been used in therapeutics for bronchodilation, for acute ventricular failure, +and for long-term control of bronchial asthma. At 100 mg/kg, theophylline is fetotoxic to +rats, but no teratogenic abnormalities were noted. In therapeutics, theobromine has been +used as a diuretic, as a cardiac stimulant, and for dilation of arteries. But at 100 mg, +theobromine is fetotoxic and teratogenic.^^ Leung‘S® reports a fatal dose in man at 10,000 +mg, with 1,000 mg or more capable of inducing headache, nausea, insomnia, restlessness, +excitement, mild delirium, muscle tremor, tachycardia, and extrasystoles. Leung also adds +“ caffeine has been reported to have many other activities including mutagenic, teratogenic, +and carcinogenic activities; . . . to cause temporary increase in intraocular pressure, to have +calming effects on hyperkinetic children . . . to cause chronic recurring headache . . . ” ^^® +Description — Long-lived evergreen tree, up to 14 m tall, resembling an apple tree; bark +smooth, green, thick, fissured in old trees. Leaves alternate, on petioles 2.5 to 7.5 cm long; +young leaves pubescent, often once or twice cut near base about half-way to midrib; mature +leaves 16 to 20 cm long, 2.5 to 5 cm broad, leathery, obovate, acute and long-acuminate, +with prominent veins below, margin entire, dark-green on upper surface. Flowers yellow, +numerous, unisexual or bisexual, 15 or more in axillary or terminal panicles, no petals; +calyx petaloid, greenish-yellow or white, purple at edges, tube green, limb 5-cleft, lobes +ovate-lanceolate; male flower with slender column, shorter than calyx, bearing a ring of 10 +2-lobed anthers, the anthers divergent; perfect flowers with subsessile anthers in a ring, +ovary 5-lobed, 5-celled, stellate pilose, with 5 linear, re-flexed, superposed styles; ovules +anatropous, attached in a double row to the ventral surface of each carpel. Fruit oblong, +obtuse, rostrate, warty coriaceous to woody, 5 to 17 cm long, 5 to 7.5 cm thick, brown +109 +resembling alligator skin, pericarp thick, fibrous, cells filled with resinous colored matter +used as dye. Seeds 5 to 12 per fruit, 2.5 to 5 cm long, 1.3 cm thick, yellow, soft, internally +whitish, pinkish or purple, brown when dry; cotyledons often 3, flatly ovate or auriculate, +cells containing starch and albuminous material. Flowers December to February, and May +to July; fruits May to June, and October to November. +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, kola, or cvs thereof, is +reported to tolerate low pH, shade, and slope. (2n = 40.)*^ +Distribution — Native and cultivated along west coast of tropical Africa, now cultivated +pantropically from 10°N to 5°S latitude, especially in West Indies, South America, Sri +Lanka, and Malaya. Occurs naturally in forests from Togo and southern Nigeria eastward +and southward to Gabon, Congo, and Angola. Extensively planted in Nigeria. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest +Life Zones, kola is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 40.3 dm (mean of 12 +cases = 19.8), annual temperature of 21.3 to 26.6°C (mean of 12 cases = 25.2), and pH +of 4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 7 cases = 5.5).^^ Thrives in tropical areas where mean annual +temperatures are uniformly 21 to 27°C, moist, with 2(X) to 225 cm rainfall, mostly at sea +level to 3(X) m altitude. Frequently forms forests in coastal areas. Requires a rich, well- +drained soil, but will grow on deep sandy loams in West Indies, with high organic content. +Cultivation — Propagated from seed, which must be sown perfectly fresh. Seeds planted +singly in pots and young trees kept growing until needed for permanent planting. Only light +shade, if any, is required after trees are 3 years old. Planting distances about 6 to 8 m each +way, equalling about 270 trees per ha. Cultivation very easy. Trees respond to fertilizers, +and produce highest yields only when weeds are kept controlled. Propagation also by cuttings +of softwood or ripe wood, using bottom heat.^^^^^® +Harvesting — Trees begin to flower 5 to 10 years after planting, reaching full production +by the 20th year, continuing to bear for 70 to 100 years. In many regions, trees flower and +fruit throughout the year, but usually two peak crops are produced in May and June and +again in October and November. Fruits require about 4 to 5 months to mature. Harvest when +pods turn chocolate-brown and begin to dehisce. Pods are shaken from tree and immediately +gathered. Seeds removed from pods and first coat cut off, leaving bare cotyledons. Nuts +are then carefully graded. Fresh kola nuts tend to mold and spoil easily. Nuts packed and +transported for local consumption is homemade baskets lined with leaves and wrapped in +canvas or hide to prevent drying out. Kola nuts imported by the U.S. are split in half, +sundried, and shipped in bags. Entire seeds are kola nuts of native consumer; kola nuts of +commerce are the separated, dried cotyledons only.^^® +Yields and economics — After 10 years, kola trees may be expected to yield 400 to 500 +(to 800) pods annually, this being equivalent to 40 to 50 (to 80) lbs of dried nuts.‘^^^^® +Purseglove^^^ reports ca. 575 kg/ha salable nuts. Within the tropics, trade of this nut is +immense. In West Tropical Africa, kola nut ranks second to the oil-palm {Elaeis), with +exports over 16 million lbs per year. Although most kola nuts are harvested from wild trees +in West Africa coastal areas, the U.S. imports most of its kola nuts from Jamaica, about +170 tons per year.^^^ +Energy — Husks, prunings, and fallen leaves can be used for energy production. +Biotic Factors — Poor yields some years have been attributed to poor pollination. Fungi +known to attack kola trees include: Botryodiplodia theobromae, Calonectria rigidiuscula, +Cephaleuros mycoidea, Fomes lignosus, F. noxius, Marasmius byssicola, M. scandens, and +Pleurotus colae +110 Handbook of Nuts +COLA NITIDA (Vent.) Schott and Endlicher (STERCULIACEAE) — Gbanja Kola +Uses — Kola possesses the central stimulating principle of caffeine. This species is more +valued than C. acuminata as it contains more caffeine. Nuts are used in West Africa to +sustain people during long journeys or long hours of work. Kola, Cola, or Kola-nuts is the +dried cotyledon of Cola nitida, or of some other species of Cola. In the U.S., the kola-nut +is used in the manufacture of nonalcoholic beverages. The tree is valued for its wood, which +is whitish, sometimes slightly pinkish when fresh; the heartwood is dull yellowish-brown +to reddish-tinged. Wood is suitable for carpentry and some construction work as house­ +building, furniture, and boat-building. Wooden platters, domestic utensils, and images are +often carved from the wood. Sometimes trees are planted for ornamental purposes. +Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, nervine, poison, restorative, sedative, stim­ +ulant, stomachic, and tonic, gbanja kola is a folk remedy for digestion, dysentery, exhaustion, +hunger, malaria, nausea, and toothache.^* Dried cotyledons are nervine, stimulant, tonic, +and astringent.The seeds are used by natives as a stimulant; when chewed, nuts increase +powers of endurance of the chewer.^^’^^® +Chemistry — Speaking generically, Hager’s Handbook*®^ stated that the nuts contain 1.5 +to 2% caffeine, a compound the Germans call colarot (= ?cola red) Ci4Hi3(OH)5, and glucose. +Colarot splits into phloroglucin and a reddish dye. Also contains up to 0.1% theobromine, +0.3 to 0.4% D-catechin (C15H14O) (“ colatine” ), L-epicatechin, essential and fatty oils, +colalipase, colaoxydase, a tannic glycoside, 0.25% betaine, 6.7% protein, 2.9% sugar, 34% +starch, 3% gum, 0.5% fat, 29% cellulose, 12% water, and procyanidin (C3oH260i2).^®^ The +glucoside kolanin is a heart stimulant. +Description — Trees 13 to 20 m tall, with dense crown, the branches and leaves nearly +touching the ground. Leaves alternate, 7.5 cm or more long, broadly lanceolate, sharply +acuminate, leathery. Flowers yellowish-white, sometimes with red stripes or blotches; fruits +2 in a cluster, covered with a thick green wrinkled coat, each fruit containing 6 to 10 or +more nuts; nuts usually red or pink, sometimes white. Fruits commonly longitudinally rugose +and wrinkled, nodular to some degree and dorsally keeled; seed separable into only two +cotyledons (C. baileyi Cornu, from West Equatorial Africa, has 6 cotyledons with very little +caffeine.) Flowers and fruits in spring and autumn, with two harvests. The main cola season +in West Africa is from October to February. +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, gbanja kola, or cvs thereof, +is reported to tolerate low pH, shade, slope, and virus.Chevalier has divided C. nitida +into four subspecies: rubra, alba, mixta, and pallida. C. nitida subsp. rubra Chev., wild +in Ivory Coast and Ashanti, has nuts larger than those of the cultivated plants and is the +common cultivated kola of Ashanti; subsp. rubra Chev., from the Ivory Coast, is a distinct +race based on characters other than those of color of the seeds; subsp. mixta Chev., known +only in cultivation, has red and white nuts on the same tree, and sometimes on the same +follicle; and subsp. alba Chev., also only known in cultivation, has only white seeds. There +is much variation in other characteristics, as size of fruits and nuts and flavor. (2n = +4 0 ) 82.278 +Distribution — Native to West Africa from Sierra Leone to the Congo. Introduced to +East Africa, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Indonesia, Brazil, and West Indies, particularly ] 2l- +maica.^®^’^^® +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Wet through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest +Life Zones, gbanja kola is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 27.8 dm (mean +of 6 cases = 22.0), annual temperature of 23.3 to 26.6°C (mean of 6 cases = 25.4°C), +and pH of 4.5 to 5.3 (mean of 4 cases = 4.9).®^ Kola trees flourish where the mean annual +temperature is between 20 to 26°C and the annual rainfall is 250 cm or more. It is found +at low altitudes ranging up to several meters above sea-level. Thrives in deep sandy loam +with much humus. +I l l +Cultivation — Propagation is by seeds (usual), cuttings, air-layering, or grafting. Seeds +are planted in seed-beds in well-prepared soil containing much humus. Seedlings are planted +in rows 6.6 m apart each way. Trees respond to fertilizers and produce the highest yields +only when weeds are cut back regularly. Best crops obtained on soils that are deep, sandy, +and with a high content of organic matter. Plantain or other plant is used as shade for the +first year or two. Cassava is a catch-crop for the tree until it gets large enough to bear fruits. +Trees may also be propagated vegetatively from cuttings. Terminal cuttings set without any +hormones retain their leaves and start callusing within 3 to 4 weeks after setting. The roots +usually appear at an acute angle from the callus. New flush growth on the rooted cuttings +starts at about the third month after potting and is commonly slow. Most cuttings flower +the first year of growth. Cuttings set out in the field grow rapidly and flower and fruit within +three years. When propagated by air-layering, about 98% of all branches treated are heavily +callused within 3 to 4 weeks; within 6 weeks, most branches have developed roots 5 to 8 +cm long. About 95% of all marcots become established satisfactorily in the field. Those +obtained from mature, already fruiting trees, flowered in 6 to 7 months after cutting them +from the mother plant, or 3 to 4 months after transplanting. Propagation by budding is +successful at all times of the year, with the highest bud-take from patch or flute budding +techniques obtained between January and April, the lowest between September and Decem­ +ber. +Harvesting — Kola trees produce two crops per year; in Jamaica, pods ripen in May and +June and again in October-November; in West Africa, the main crop is harvested from +October to February. The chocolate brown pods, which range in size from 5 to 10 cm long, +are shaken from the tree and gathered immediately, or are cut off by tree-climbers with +knives on long sticks. Harvesters climbing trees are occasionally attacked by ants. The seeds +are removed from the pods and the outer coat is cut off, exposing the bare cotyledons. These +are carefully graded inasmuch as only sound cotyledons do not deteriorate quickly. Fresh +kola-nuts tend to mold and spoil rather easily. They must be taken to market quickly for +local consumption. Kola-nuts of commerce are freed from the white covering, usually after +soaking or by fermentation in broad leaves. Occasionally, the nuts are buried to keep them +sound for a favorable market; in the equatorial regions, it is done in ant hills. The main +trade is in good-sized nuts. Packing is done in baskets along with broad leaves, and with +occasional moistening, the nuts can be transported for a month, free from mold. Kola-nuts +prepared for shipment to the U.S. are split in half, sun-dried, and shipped in bags. They +are usually soaked in water for 2 to 3 hr and the juice thrown off. For export to Europe, +peat is recommended as a packing material suitable for all conditions of temperature, and +the nuts, which are mainly used for drugs and wine, are shipped in the dry condition. +Yields and economics — Depending on how they are propagated, trees begin to bear +fruit in 4 to 5 years and reach full production in 10 to 15 years, or begin in 7 to 9 years +and reach maturity in 15 to 20 years. Then they continue to bear good crops of fruits for +50 years or more. Usually after a tree is 10 years old, it may be expected to yield, in two +harvests, about 56 kg of dried nuts per year.^^^ Speaking generically, Purseglove^^^ notes +that of nearly 250 trees in Nigeria, ca. 20% gave no yield at all, ca. 60% gave mean annual +yields up to 300 nuts, while 20% produced 72% of the total yield of the plot. The average +was 210 nuts per tree, the 10 best trees averaging 1,415 nuts, while the best yielded 2,209 +nuts per year. With an average 60 nuts per kilogram, that is more than 36 kg for the big +yielder. Purseglove concludes there are an average 210 salable nuts per tree, or ca. 575 +kg/ha.^^^ Although most kola-nuts are harvested from wild trees of the West African coast, +the U.S. imports most of its kola-nuts from Jamiaca. In the U.S., most kola-nuts are used +for manufacturing nonalcoholic beverages. +Energy — Husks, prunings, and fallen leaves can be used for energy production. +Biotic factors — Self-pollinated trees produce only white fruits (white-colored nuts bring +112 Handbook of Nuts +the highest prices); the production of colored (red or pink) nuts may therefore be due to +cross-pollination. The following fungi have been reported on this species of kolanut: Au- +ricularia delicata, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Corticium koleroga, Fomes lignosis, F. +noxius, Graphium rhodophaeum, Irenopsis coliicola, Marasmius equicrinus, M. scandens, +Nectria delbata, Phaeobotryosphaeria plicatula; twig blight, root rot, and thread blight. +Nematodes isolated from this tree include the following species: Helicotylenchus cavenessi, +H. pseudorobustus, Scutellonema clathricaudatum, and Xiphinema sp. Insect pests include +borers, cola weevils (Balanogastris kolae), and larvae of the moth Characoma. Trees are +also attacked by pests found on cocoa, as the caspid Sahlbergella singularis and by Me- +sohomotoma tessmanii.^^^'^''^ +113 +COLA VERTICILLATA (Thonn.) Stapf ex A.Chev. (STERCULIACEAE) — Owe Cola, +Slippery Cola, Mucilage Cola +Syn.: C ola jo h n so n ii Stapf. and S tercu lia verticillata Thonn. +Uses — Seeds, indistinguishable from true cola in appearance, are edible, though very +bitter and considered unfit to eat.^^^ Nuts are used to make a beverage. In some districts, +the people gather the fruit, or at least chew it where found; in others, they usually regard +it as a “ monkey kola” . Wood of the tree is white and hard, and is used in S. Nigeria to +make fetish images. +Folk medicine — Containing caffeine, this species no doubt shares some pharmacological +properties and folk uses with other Cola species. +Chemistry — Nuts contain a fair proportion of caffeine. +Description — Trees large, 8 to 10(to 25) m tall; branches sparsely puberulent, rarely +cylindrical, brownish dark-red, often weeping. Leaves verticillate in threes or fours, opposite +in the lower nodes, simple, entire, subcoriaceous to coriaceous; stipules 5 to 6 mm long, +puberulent on lower surface; petiole 2 to 6 mm long, sparsely puberulent; blades obovate- +elliptic, oblong or oblanceolate, cuneate at base, attenuate to apex, 12 to 25 cm long, 3 to +9 cm broad, glabrous, subcoriaceous, green on upper surface, puberulent and brownish dark- +red beneath; secondary veins in 5 to 8 pairs, ascending. Panicles axillary, isolated in groups +of 2 to 3; flowers small, 1 to 3 cm long, puberulent; bracts oval, cuspidate, concave, about +6 mm long, more or less persistent; calyx 5- to 8-lobed, densely puberulent on external +surface, sparsely so on inner surface; male flowers on pedicels 3 to 7 mm long, articulate +at summit, puberulent, calyx 4 to 5(to 8) mm long with 5 to 6 lobes longer than the tube; +androphore 1 mm long, puberulent, corona of stamens in 2 verticels, female flowers and +perfect flowers on pedicels 12 mm long, articulate near the summit, with 5 to 7 lobes about +7 mm long; ovary with 5 carpels in 2 tiers of 4 ovules. Fruit on pedicels 3 to 4 cm long; +follicles subsessile, oblong, up to 20 cm long, 9 cm broad, with short beak, obtuse, and +more or less recurved, glabrous. Seeds 4 to 9, sometimes up to 12 per follicle, ovoid-elliptic, +3 mm long, 2 cm broad, either red or white, with 3 to 4 cotyledons. +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, owe kola, or cvs thereof, +is reported to tolerate shade, slope, and virus. (2n = 40.)®^ +Distribution — Native to Tropical West Africa from Ivory Coast and Ashanti to Ca- +meroons and Lower Congo; planted in N. Nigeria and elsewhere, but nowhere much cul­ +tivated. Some cultivation in Nigeria, Cameroons, Ghana, Dahomey, Gabon, and Cabinda. +Often found in planting of C. nítida. The only kola found on the Mambilla Plateau in +Northern Nigeria. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life +Zones, owe kola is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 22.3 dm (mean of 3 +cases = 17.7), annual temperature of 23.5 to 26.4°C (mean of 3 cases = 17.7°C), and pH +of 4.8 to 5.0 (mean of 2 cases = 4.9).®^ Indigenous to damp forests of the tropical zone, +especially in swamps and by streams; requiring the jungle-type habitat. Often planted in +villages. +Cultivation — Most trees are self-seeded in humid forests of tropical West Africa. +Propagated by seed planted in site where desired. No special care given after tree is estab­ +lished. +Harvesting — Fruits are gathered from trees in the wild in some districts. Occasionally +trees are planted in villages; fruits are collected when ripe to make beverages.^^® +Yields and economics — A fruit of minor importance in area of adapation, used mostly +by natives as a source of caffeine, for a beverage, and for wood.^^® +Energy — Husks, prunings, and fallen leaves can be used for energy production. +Biotic factors — The fungus Irenopsis aburiensis has been reported on this tree. No +serious pests are reported. +114 Handbook of Nuts +CORDEAUXIA EDULIS Hemsl. (CAESALPINIACEAE) — Yeheb Nut +Uses — Seeds said to be edible raw or cooked, likened by one author to a chestnut, by +another to a cash ew .M u ch relished by the Somalians, often preferred to the usual diet +of rice and dates. The leaves are infused to make a tea. Leaves, eagerly grazed by livestock, +contain a brilliant red dye that will stain the hands, even the bones of goats who eat it. +Somalians use the magenta-red coloring matter to stain textiles. +Folk medicine — No data available. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) contains 448 calories, 12.1 g protein, 13.5 g +fat, 71.9 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 g fiber, 2.5 g ash, 36 mg Ca, 208 mg P, and 7.2 mg +Fe. The NAS (1979) reports 37% starch, 24% sugar, 13% protein, and 11% fat. The protein +contains amino acids in proportions similar to other pulses, deficient in m ethionine.M iege +and Miege^*^ report 10.8 g arginine, 3.5 g histamine, 3.9 isoleucine, 6.4 g leucine, 6.8 g +lysine, 0.7 g methionine, 3.9 g phenylalanine, 3.6 g threonine, 4.8 g valine, 1.9 g tyrosine, +0.6 g cystine, 9.1 g asparagine, 23.8 g glutamine, 3.9 g serine, 6.6 g prolamine, 4.9 g +glycine, and 4.5 g alanine per 100 g protein. The albumins have trypsin inhibitors, the +globulins nearly 10 times as much. Phytohemagglutinins, alkaloids, or glucosides are said +to be absent.^ The red stain is due to cordeauxione, the only naphthoquinone found in +legumes. +Description — Dwarf multistemmed evergreen shrub to 3 m tall; lower branches dense, +straight, broomlike, hard. Leaves paripinnate; leaflets usually oval-oblong, 4-paired, leath­ +ery, dotted below with reddish, scale-like glands; stipules none. Flowers few, yellow, in +apical corymbs; calyx short; lobes 5, blunt, valvate, glandular; petals 5, subequal, clawed, +spoon-shaped; stamens 10, free; filaments hairy below; anthers versatile; ovary short-stalked, +2-ovuled, densely glandular; stigma obtuse. Pod leathery, compressed-ovoid, curved, apex +115 +beaked, 2-valved, dehiscent, 1 to 4 seeded, seeds ovoid, endosperm lacking, cotyledons +thick.® Germination epigeal, the eophylls 1 to 8-foliolate, the first eophylls often opposite. +Germplasm — Reported from the Ethiopian Center of Diversity, yeheb, or cvs thereof, +is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, poor red sandy soils, sand, and savanna. +Distribution — Endemic to Somalia, Malawi, and Ethiopia. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Desert to Thom through Tropical Desert +to Thom Forest Life Zones, yeheb is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 1 to 8 dm +(1 to 2 reported), annual temperature of 23 to 30°C, and pH of 6 to 8.5 (reported 7.8 to +8.4). In its native habitat, yeheb occurs in savannas, elevation 300 to 1,000 m, with poor +red sandy soils, two rainy seasons, annual rainfall of 250 to 400 mm, and no frosts. +Cultivation — Only recently brought under cultivation at the Central Agricultural Re­ +search Station at Afgoi, Somalia, and at Voi and Galana Ranch, Kenya. Seeds germinate +as high as 80%, the seedlings quickly developing a thin but tough tap root, which complicates +transplanting. Hence, field seeding is recommended. +Harvesting — Starts fmiting at age 3 or 4 years, fmits said to ripen in only 5 to 6 days.^^'* +Yields and economics — Overexploitation, overgrazing, nonflowering in drought, and +war in its native habitat, have all jeopardized the very existence of the yeheb. “ The plant +is in great danger of e x tin ctio n .S o m alis use ca. 200 g pulverized leaves to dye 90,000 +cm^ calico. In the old days of British Somaliland, sacks of the nuts were brought down to +the coast for sale.^^* +Energy — No data available. +Biotic factors — Although the shmb itself is essentially free of insect pests, the nuts are +attacked by weevils and moth larvae. Rhizobia are not reported, but root nodules are reported +on younger roots.® +116 Handbook of Nuts +CO RYLU S AM ERICANA Walt. (BETULACEAE) — American Hazelnut or Filbert +Uses — Cultivated for production of nuts for home use and wildlife, for cover and shelter- +belt use, and for an ornamental. Kernels eaten raw or roasted, alone or mixed with other +nuts.^^^ Nuts may be beaten to a powder and used like flour to make filbert bread. +Folk medicine — According to H artw ell,the bark is used in folk remedies for a poultice +for tumors. Reported to be a panacea, American hazelnut is a folk remedy for stomatitis +and tumor.Chippewa used the charcoal, pricked into the temples with needles, as analgesic; +Ojibwa used a poultice of boiled bark to help close and heal cuts.^’^ Said to cause allergic +rhinitis, bronchial asthma, and/or hypersensitivity pneumonitis.’*"^ +Chemistry — Smith'”’^ reports the nuts to contain 5.4% water, 16.5% protein, 64.0% +fat, 11.7% carbohydrates, 2.4% ash, and 3,100 calories per pound. +Description — Deciduous shrub, forming dense thickets, 1 to 3 m tall; branchlets pu­ +bescent and glandular bristly. Leaves 7.5 to 15 cm long, slightly cordate or rounded at base, +broadly ovate or obovate, irregularly doubly serrate, sparingly pubescent above, paler and +finely tomentose beneath. Involucre pubescent but not bristly, compressed, about twice as +long as nut, the 2 bracts sometimes connate and usually tightly enclosing it with rather short, +triangular, denate lobes, the whole 1.5 to 3 cm long; nut roundish-ovate, compressed, 1 to +1.5 cm long. Flowers March to April; fruits July to October; seed dispersal July to winter. +Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity. Of the botanical +varieties, the following are sometimes recognized: C. am ericana forma m issouriensis (DC.) +Fern., plants without stipitate glands, and found occasionally throughout the range of the +species. C. am ericana var. indehiscens Palm, and Steyerm., with fruiting bracts united on +one side, found from North Carolina to Missouri. C. am ericana var. calyculata Winkl. (C. +calyculata Dipp.), the involucre with 2 very large bracts at base. The most important cvs +of the American filbert are ‘Rush’ and ‘Winkler’, both very widely cultivated and the most +hardy of all filberts. Four hybrids — ‘Bixly’, ‘Buchanan’, ‘Reed’, and ‘Potomac’, have +been introduced; these have intermediate characteristics between European and American +varieties. The cultivars of American hazelnut have smaller nuts than those of European +filberts. (2n = 22. +Distribution — Native from eastern Canada and Maine west to Ontario and Saskatchewan, +south to Florida, Georgia, Oklahoma, and the Dakotas. Also usually cultivated within that +range. +117 +Ecology — Estimated to range from Warm Temperate Dry to Wet through Cool Temperate +Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones, the American hazelnut is estimated to tolerate annual +precipitation of 5 to 30 dm, annual temperature of 6 to 14°C, and pH of 5.0 to 8.0.^^ +Naturally grows in or along edge of woods and thickets, on both dry and moist soils. +However, it grows best on moderately rich, well-drained soils. Filberts should be planted +on soils which are deep, fertile, and well-drained. Heavy clay or silt soils as well as coarse, +deep sand should be avoided. When planted on poorly drained soils, shrub grows poorly, +is subject to winter injury and bears few nuts.^^^ Hardy to Zone +Cultivation — Most filberts offered for sale by nurserymen have been propagated by +layering and are on their own roots. Trees that have been grown for 1 or 2 years in the +nursery after the layers have been removed from parent stock are preferable to older trees. +Some nurserymen propagate their trees on Turkish filbert roots that do not produce suckers. +This rootstock generally outgrows the scion to some extent. Filbert can be propagated from +seed which have been stratified 60 days at 5°C, plus 67 days at 18°C, and 30 days at 5°C. +Stratified seed should be sown in spring. Seed should be drilled in fall and protected from +rodents. Germination is hypogeous. Horticultural cvs are propagated by suckers, layering, +budding, or grafting and cuttings. Filberts of all varieties should be planted 5 to 7 m or +more apart. In most cases, trees are planted in late winter or very early spring, after danger +of severe freezing is passed. The same general methods of planting should be used as for +apple and peach trees. Newly transplanted and young trees should be cultivated sufficiently +to destroy all grass and weed growth before the beginning of tree growth in spring and +through July. Mulching trees with any type of organic matter is as satisfactory as cultivation, +provided that sufficient mulch is applied to a large enough area around each tree to keep +grass and weed growth suppressed. In general, the same cultural practices used for peaches +are satisfactory for filberts. Filberts generally respond readily to fertilizer applications, +although no recommendation would apply to all situations. On most soils, it is not advisable +to apply any fertilizer the first year after transplanting. Beginning the second year, about +475 gm (1 lb) per tree of a 5-10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should be broadcast around the tree +just before beginning of tree growth. The amount of fertilizer is increased by 475 gm/year +until trees are 10 to 12 years old; after that, ca. 5 kg/per tree is adequate. Filberts are pruned +to balance top loss with root loss (in planting), or to train young trees to desired form, or +to remove dead, broken, or diseased branches, or to stimulate moderate growth of new +shoots on old trees. At planting, tree should be cut back to about 60 cm above the ground, +leaving 4 to 6 branches to grow. Trees or shrubs should be trained to the central leader +form, provided it does not require removal of much wood. The more wood removed from +young plants, the later they come into bearing; therefore, only necessary pruning should be +done. Pruning should be done after pollen is shed and anthers have fallen. Since American +filberts or hazelnuts tend to sucker, the suckers should be removed promptly and the plant +trained to a single stem. Suckers should be removed at point on trunk or root where they +originate; cutting them off at surface of soil only increases the number that grow. Suckering +operations should be done 3 to 4 times a year, as they are easier to remove when young. +Harvesting — Most filbert varieties are self-unfruitful, even though staminate and pis­ +tillate catkins are on the same tree or bush. Cross-pollination must be provided for satisfactory +fruit-production. In all plantings, 2 or more varieties should be included. The period of +pistillate flowering is usually much longer than that of pollen-shedding on a particular variety. +Furthermore, pollen of one variety must be shed when pistillate flowers of the other variety +are receptive. Nuts, good flavored, should be harvested from bushes in the fall as soon as +edges of husks begin to turn brown. As all nuts do not mature at once, 2 to 4 gatherings +may be necessary in a season. If nuts drop easily to ground, they should not be allowed to +remain there long because of loss to rodents and birds and discoloration and moldiness due +to wet weather. Nuts should be promptly dried by spreading them in a thin layer in a dry +118 Handbook of Nuts +place having good air circulation. Nuts dried in an unheated building usually require 4 to +6 weeks for drying. During this process, they should be stirred frequently to prevent molding. +The temperature of nuts dried by artificial heat should not be higher than 45°C; otherwise +they will not store well. After nuts have dried for this time, they are flailed to remove the +husk. The nuts, which are the commercial seed, can then be sown, stratified, or stored. +Storage in sealed containers at 5°C will retain a large part of viability in C. am ericana for +at least 2 years. +Yields and economics — Brinkman^^ reports 491 seed per lb (ca. 1,080/kg). American +filberts give good crops every 2 to 3 years, or light crops every year. Yield, size of nut, +purity, soundness, and cost of commercial seed vary according to cv.^^® Great quantities of +hazelnuts are gathered each year for home use in northeastern U.S. and Canada. Many more +are used as food for wildlife. +Energy — Small and erratically bearing, this species does not seem to hold great promise +as a firewood or oilseed species. The 64% oil could conceivably serve as an energy source. +Biotic factors — A fungus disease. Eastern filbert blight, may cause severe damage to +European filberts in the eastern U.S.; once well-established in a planting, it is very difficult, +if not impossible to control. Growers should spot and eradicate early infections. Although +this disease is almost always on American filbert plants, it usually does little damage to +them. Each spring, trees should be carefully inspected and any diseased branches cut out +and burned. Among the insect pests, hazelnut weevil, in severe infestations, may completely +destroy the crop of nuts. Leaves are preferred food for Japanese beetles, and plants may be +completely defoliated by them. Filbert bug mite and Birch case-borer (C olephora salm ani) +may be pest problems. Stink-bugs and other plant bugs attack developing nuts and cause +them to be bitter when mature. As these insects breed on various plants, as legumes and +blackberries, control chiefly depends on orchard sanitation and elimination from plantation +of host plants on which bugs breed. For control of all pests, consult local state agents. +According to Agriculture Handbook No. 165,'* the following attack this species: A pioporthe +anom ala, Cenangium furfuraceum , C ucurbitaria con globata, C ylindrosporium verm iform is, +D iaporth e decedens, D iatrypella fro stii, D . m issouriensis, D ip lo d ia coryli, G loeosporium +coryli, G nom oniella coryli, G. gnom on, H ym enochaete cinnam om ea, H ypoxylon fuscum , +M elanconis fla vo viren s, M icrosph aera alni, P hyllactinia corylea, P hym atotrichum omni- +vorum , P hysalospora obtusa, P olyporu s albellus, P. elegans, P. radiatus, P . stereoides, +Scorias spongiosa, Septogloeum profusum , S eptoria corylina, S phaeropsis coryli, Taphrina +coryli, and Valsa am biens. +119 +CO RYLU S AVELLANA L. (BETULACEAE) — European Filbert, Cobnuts, Hazelnuts, Bar­ +celona Nuts +Uses — Long-cultivated, this is the main source of filberts of commerce. Kernel of nut +eaten raw, roasted, or salted, alone or with other nuts; also used in confections and baked +goods. Leaves sometimes used for smoking like tobacco. Hazelnut or filbert oil, a clear, +yellow, non-drying oil is used in food, for painting, in perfumes, as fuel oil, for manufacture +of soaps, and for machinery. Hazelwood or nutwood is soft, elastic, reddish-white with dark +lines, and is easy to split, but is not very durable. It is used for handles, sieves, walking +sticks, hoops of barrels, hurdles, wattles, and is a source of charcoal made into gunpow­ +der. 278,324 +Folk medicine — According to H artw ell,th e paste derived from the bark is said to be +a folk remedy for tumors. A salve, derived from the leaves and nuts, in a plaster with honey, +is said to be a cure for cancer. Reported to be fumitory and vasoconstrictor, European filberts +are a folk remedy for hypotension and parotid tumors.Medicinally, the nuts are tonic, +stomachic, and aphrodisiac.^^® +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 620 to 634 calories, 16.4 to 20.0 +g protein, 54.3 to 58.5 g fat, 21.4 to 22.9 g total carbohydrates, 3.3 to 5.9 g fiber, 1.8 to +3.7 g ash, 201 mg Ca, 462 mg P, 4.5 mg Fe, 1044 mg K, 10.80 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, +0.17 mg thiamine, 0.44 mg riboflavin, 5.40 mg niacin, and 2.2 mg ascorbic acid.®^ The +Wealth of India'^^ reports the kernel to contain 12.7% protein, \1 .1% carbohydrate, 60.9% +fat, 0.35% P; rich in phosphorus. Kernel contains 50 to 65% of a golden yellow oil. The +fatty acid components are 88.1% oleic, 1.9% linoleic, 3.1% palmitic, 1.6% stearic, and +2.2% myristic. The leaves contain myricitroside, a rhamnoside of myricetol and allantoic +acid. The bark contains lignoceryl alcohol, betulinol, and sitosterol.Pollen contains guan- +osine (C10N13N5O5) and n-triacosan. The wood contains cellulose, galactan, mannan, araban, +and xylan. The ripe fruit contains 50 to 60% fat. Corylus oil contains 85% oleic- and 10% +palmitic-acid esters; in addition, 0.5% phytosterol, protein, corylin (?), 2 to 5% sucrose, 2 +to 5% ash, melibiose (C12H22O11), manninotriose (C18H32O16), raffmose (C,8H320i6), and +stachyose (C24H42O21). Leaves contain taraxerol (C30H50O), (3-sitosterol, 3a, 7a,22a-tri- +hydroxystigmasterol, n-nonacosan? (C29H60), myricitrin (C21H50O), sucrose, essential oil, +18% palmitic-acid, 6.6% ash (52.8% CaO, 5.8% Si02, 2.6% Fc203). The bark contains +tannic acid, lignocerylalcohol, sitosterol, and betulin (C3oH5o02).‘*^ +Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree, up to 6 m tall, often thicket-forming; dark- +brown, smooth, with glandular-hairy twigs; leaves 5 to 12 cm long, orbicular, long-pointed, +hairy on both surfaces; margin doubly serrated; catkins appearing before leaves; staminate +catkins 2 to 8 cm long, pendulous, in clusters of 1 to 4; pistillate flowers about 5 mm long, +bud-like, erect; fruit in clusters of 1 to 4; nuts 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, brown, invested by +deeply lobed irregularly toothed bracts as long as nut. Flowers January to March; fruits +fall.2^® +Germplasm — Reported from the Near Eastern and Mediterranean Centers of Diversity, +European filbert, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, frost, high pH, low pH, and +slope.®^ European filberts are varieties or hybrids of C. avellana and C. m axim a, both natives +of Old World. In Europe, filberts are those varieties with tubular husks longer than nut, +which is usually oblong; cob-nuts are roundish, angular, with husks about length of nut. In +America, all varieties of C. avellan a are filberts, and native species of C orylu s are hazelnuts. +Many hybrids between C. avellana, C. m axim a, and the American filberts have been pro­ +duced and many selections have been made. Hybrids with ‘Rush’ (a selection of C. am er- +icana) have produced some very hardy and productive plants, as ‘Bixly’, ‘Buchanan’, +‘Potomac’, and ‘Reed’. Mixed hybrid seedlings are often sold as ‘Jones Hybrids’. ‘Barcelona’ +is the principal variety cultivated in Oregon, with ‘Daviana’ and ‘DuChilly’ as pollinizers. +120 Handbook of Nuts +‘Cosford’, ‘Medium Long’, and ‘Italian Red’ are the best of over 100 varieties grown in +New York. ‘Purple Aveline’ is grown for its deep-red foliage in spring. C. avellana var. +pontica (C. Koch) Winkler (Pontine Hazel or Trabzon Filbert) with lacerated, tubular husks, +with nuts maturing by end of August, easily propagated by layering or grafting, long +cultivated in Asia Minor.Three varieties popular for ornamental planting are ‘Aurea’ +(yellow leaves), ‘Contorta’ (twigs definitely curled and twisted), and ‘Pendula’ (with pen­ +dulous b r a n c h e s ) . ( 2 n = 22,28.) +Distribution — Native throughout most of Europe, except some islands and in the extreme +north and northeast, east to the Caucasus and Asia, south to North Africa and temperate +western Asia. Widely cultivated in temperate zones of Old and New World. Common in +gardens on hill country in India, but unsuccessful on plains there; cultivated in Oregon and +W ashington.Cultivated varieties introduced to the west coast of the U.S. in 1871.^®^ +Ecology — Ranging from Boreal Wet through Subtropical Thom to Dry Forest Life +Zones, European filbert is reported to tolerate precipitation of 3.1 to 13.6 dm (mean of 29 +cases = 7.0), annual temperature of 5.9 to 18.6°C (mean of 29 cases = 10.3°C), and pH +of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean of 21 cases = 6.5).^^ Grows and is cultivated principally in countries +where summer temperatures are comparatively cool and winter temperatures uniform and +mild. Trees often injured during both mild and severe winters. Low temperatures, following +periods of warm weather during latter half of winter generally cause more cold injury to +catkins and wood than do abnormally low temperatures earlier in the season. Winters of +continuous mild temperatures or those with severe but steady low temperatures (not lower +than -5°C) usually result in little injury. Winters of alternating thawing and freezing cause +most damage. High summer temperatures, as in Eastern and Central U.S., often cause leaves +to scorch and bum and are an important factor in preventing trees from growing and fruiting +satisfactorily. Much of this trouble probably results from inadequate soil moisture supply at +critical times, as filbert does not have a deep taproot, and the feeding roots are fibrous and +shallow. Hence, commercial filbert production in the U.S. is confined to the Northwest +where climatic conditions are more favorable.H ardy to Zone 3.^"^^ +Cultivation — The site for filberts should be selected so as to delay opening of flowers +until the time when temperatures lower than — 5°C are no longer to be expected. A northern +slope or cover is the most satisfactory type of site. Cold, exposed sites, subject to drying +effects of winds, should be avoided. Filberts are usually propagated by layering so that new +plants are on their own roots. Some varieties sucker profusely, and soil is mounded up +around these in spring to depth of several cm. By the following spring, roots have developed +at base of sucker. Then, rooted suckers are cut loose, taken up and grown for a year in the +nursery before setting them in a permanent site. Filberts may be propagated from seed, but +varieties and cultivars do not come true. Seeds require after-ripening for germination. They +may be stratified in sand over the winter. In spring, seeds are planted in the nursery and +seedlings grown for 2 years. Buds grafted on C. colurna seedlings showed 39% successful +union. Filbert trees of most varieties should be planted 5 to 7 m or more apart. Small­ +growing hybrids can be planted 3 to 5 m apart. In most cases, trees should be planted in +late winter or very early spring, after danger of severe freezing weather has passed. The +same general methods of planting should be used as that used for apple or peach. Newly +transplanted and young trees should be cultivated sufficiently to destroy all grass and weed +growth before the beginning of tree growth in spring and through July. Mulching trees with +organic matter is equally satisfactory, provided that sufficient mulch is applied to a large +enough area around each tree to suppress grass and weed growth. In general, the same +cultural practices used for peaches are satisfactory for filberts. Filberts generally respond +readily to fertilizer applications, although no recommendation would apply to all conditions. +On most soils, it is not advisable to apply any fertilizer the first year after transplanting. +Beginning the second year, about 475 g (1 lb) per tree of a 5-10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should +121 +be broadcast around tree just before beginning of tree growth. The amount of fertilizer should +be increased by 475 g (1 lb) per tree per year until trees are 10 to 12 years old; after that +ca. 5 kg per tree per year is sufficient. Filberts are pruned to: (1) balance top loss with root +loss in planting operations; (2) train young trees to desired form; and (3) remove dead or +broken branches and stimulate moderate new shoot growth on older trees. At planting, the +tree should be cut back to about 60 cm above ground, and 4 to 6 branches should be allowed +to grow. Trees should be trained to the central leader form, provided it does not require +removal of much wood. The more wood removed from young trees, the later they come +into bearing; therefore, only necessary pruning should be done. Older trees that make short +shoot growth should have branches thinned out and slightly cut back to stimulate production +of stronger, more vigorous shoots. Pruning should be done after pollen is shed and catkins +have fallen. All filberts except Turkish tend to grow as bushes by suckering from roots. All +suckers should be promptly removed and the tree trained to a single stem. Suckers should +be removed at the point on the trunk or root where they originate; cutting them off at the +soil surface only increases the suckers that grow. Suckering operations should be done 3 or +4 times a year, as young suckers are easier to remove. +Harvesting — Shrubs or trees begin bearing in about 4 years and bear well nearly every +year. Staminate and pistillate appear on the same tree in different clusters. Depending on +the location and winter weather conditions, pollination begins in January to March and lasts +about 1 month. Young nuts do not become visible until late June or early July. There is a +3 to 4 month lapse between pollination and fertilization. Although filbert trees flower when +freezing temperatures can be expected, they are generally not injured unless the temperature +drops to about - 10°C during the period of pollination. Most filbert varieties are self- +unfruitful, and cross-pollination must be provided for satisfactory fruit-production. In all +plantings, trees of 2 or more varieties should be included. The period of pistillate flowering +is usually much longer than that of pollen-shedding on a particular variety. Furthermore, +pollen of one variety must be shed at a time when pistillate flowers of the other variety are +receptive. Pollen of C. avellana is effective on pistils of C. cornuta and C. americana, but +a reverse application is usually sterile. C. americana x C. avellana hybrids have been used +successfully to pollinate C. avellana. Nuts soon become rancid when stored at room tem­ +perature.^^* With good weather and modem equipment, five experienced workers can harvest +ca. 200 acres in 10 days.^®^ +Yields and economics — No specific yield data available, as nuts are gathered several +times.A good orchard can provide ca. 2,000 kg/ha dry in-shell nuts annually. U.S. +imports ca. 45% of filberts consumed annually.Filberts include both C. avellana and C. +maxima and their hybrids, and they are not separated in the trade. In 1969— 1970, Turkey +exported about 81,300 MT of shelled nuts valued at $103 million, and 1,228 MT of unshelled +nuts valued at $783,342. In 1970, production was about 240,000 MT unshelled nuts. Filberts +range from $125-$150/ton. Major importers are West Germany, USSR, France, Italy, U.K., +Switzerland, U.S., Lebanon, East Germany, and Syria. The U.S. produces about 9,000 +tons annually in the shell and imports additional quantities. +Energy — Though not usually considered a firewood species, the wood could undoubtedly +serve such a purpose. Specific gravity of 0.917. The oil potential of nearly ca. 1 MT/ha +would better be utilized for edible than energy purposes. +Biotic factors — Nuts of some varieties drop freely from husk, while others must be +removed from husk by hand. Fallen nuts should be gathered 2 to 4 times during the harvest +season, as they do not all mature at the same time. Those that drop early should not be +allowed to lie on the ground because of loss to rodents and birds and discoloration or +moldiness due to wet weather. Nuts should be promptly dried by spreading them in a thin +layer in a dry place having good air circulation. Nuts dried in an unheated building usually +require 4 to 6 weeks for drying. During this process, they should be stirred frequently to +122 Handbook of Nuts +prevent molding. Temperature of nuts dried by artificial heat should not be higher than 45°C +— otherwise they will not store well. Kernels of fully dried nuts are firm and brittle and +will break with a sharp snap when hit with a hammer or crushed with the fingers. The +following fungi are known to cause diseases on European filbert: Anthostoma dubium, +Apioporthe anómala, Armillaria mellea, Cercospora coryli, Chorostate conjuncta, Ciboria +amentácea, Coriolus hoehnelii, Cryptospora corylina, Cylindrosporium coryli, Cytospora +corylicola, C. fuckelii, Diaporthe decedens, D. eres, Diatrype disciformis, D. stigma, +Diatrypella favacea, D. verrucaeformis, Cryptosporiopsis grisea, Diplodia sarmentorum, +D. coryli, Fenestella princeps, Fornes annosus, Fumago vagans, Gloeosporium coryli, G. +perexiguum, Gnomonia amoena, G. coryli, G. gnomon, Gnomoniella coryli, Helmintho- +sporium macrocarpum, H. velutinum, Helotim fructigenum, Hypoxylon fuscum, H. multi­ +forme, H. unitum, Labrella coryli, Lachnum hedwigiae, Mamiania coryli, Mamianiella +coryli, Marasmius foetidus, Melconis sulphurea, Melanomma pulvis-pyrius, Merulius rufus, +M. serpens, Monostichella coryli, Nectria coryli, N. ditissima, Nitschkia tristis, Orbilia +crenato-marginata, Peniophora cinerea, Pestalozzia coryli, Pezicula corylina, Phellinus +punctatus, Phoma suffulta, Phyllactinia corylea, Phyllosticta coryli, Phytophthora cactorum, +Radulum oribculae, Rhizopus nodosus, Sclerotinia fructigena, Septoria avellanae, Sillia +ferruginea, Stereum hirsutum, S. rugosum, Sphaeropsis coryli, Stictis mollis, Taphrina +coryli, Tyromyces semipileatus, Valsa corylina, and Vuilleminia comedens. European filbert +trees are attacked by the bacteria, Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Xanthomonas coryli. +Nematodes isolated from filberts include: Caconema radicicola, Heterodera marioni, Lon- +gidorus maximus, and Pratylenchus penetrans. Few insects attack leaves, branches, or nuts; +some may cause severe damage unless controlled. Stink bugs and other plant bugs attack +developing nuts and cause them to be bitter when mature. As these insects breed on various +plants, as legumes, blackberries, and others, control chiefly depends on orchard sanitation +and elimination of host plants on which bugs breed. +123 +CORYLUS CHINENSIS Franch. (BETULACEAE) — Chinese Filbert +Syn.: C orylu s co lu m n var. ch in en sis Burk. +Uses — Kernels of nuts edible, used for food, eaten raw, roasted, or in cookery, and as +flavoring. Plants used for hybridizing, since they are trees relatively resistant to Eastern +filbert blight. +Folk medicine — No data available. +Chemistry — No data available. +Description — Deciduous tree up to 40 m tall; leaves 10 to 17 cm tall, ovate to ovate- +oblong, cordate or very oblique at base, glabrous above, pubescent along veins beneath, +doubly serrate, petioles 0.8 to 2.5 cm long, pubescent and setulose; fruits 4 to 6, clustered; +involucre, not spiny, constricted above nut, with recurved and more or less forked lobes, +finely pubescent, not glandular; nuts relatively small, hard-shelled but of high quality. +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Chinese filbert, or +CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, frost, heat, and slope.Som e selections +are heavy producers. Cultivated, along with its hybrids, in southern Michigan.(2n = 11. +Distribution — China;cultivated in Michigan. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, Chinese +filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.6 to 12.3 dm (mean of 2 cases = +9.5), annual temperature of 14.7 to 15.0°C (mean of 2 cases = 14.9°C), and pH of 4.9 to +6.8 (mean of 2 cases = 5.9).®^ Thrives in soils which permit its strong root system to +penetrate to great depths. Trees resistant to cold, heat, drought, and other hazardous con­ +ditions of the environment.^^® +Cultivation — Propagated by seeds, but seedlings vary greatly in productivity and bearing +age. Often hybridized with other species to get larger nuts and more hardy plants. Trees +produce few or no suckers. +Harvesting — Trees begin to bear fruit in about 8 years, and then continue for a long +time. Nuts harvested in fall as other filbert tree species. Treatment, drying, and storage +methods similar to those used for other filberts and hazelnuts. +Yields and economics — Although no exact figures are available for this species, its +selections and hybrids are said to be heavy producers. No specific production figures for +this species. +Energy — As a tall tree, this produces better firewood than some of the bushy species +of Corylus. +Biotic factors — No specific data available for this species, but same precautions should +be taken as for other filberts. Trees are relatively resistant to Eastern filbert blight. +124 Handbook of Nuts +CO RYLU S COLU RN A L. (BETULACEAE) — Turkish Filbert or Hazelnut, Constantinople +Nut +Uses — Cultivated for the nuts, the edible kernel used for confections, pastries, and for +flavoring. Nuts also used roasted or salted, alone or with other nuts. This species is rarely +cultivated for nuts in North America, but rather as an ornamental and for nursery under­ +stock. +Folk medicine — Nuts used as a tonic. +Chemistry — According to Hager’s Handbook,*®^ the nuts contain melibiose, manni- +notriose, raffinose, and stachyose. +Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree, rarely up to 25 m tall, with regular +pyramidal head; leaves 7.5 to 12.5 cm long, deeply cordate, rounded, ovate or obovate, +slightly lobed, doubly serrate, nearly glabrous above, pubescent beneath; petioles 2.5 cm +long, usually glabbrescent, stipules lanceolate and acuminate; catkins up to 12 cm long, +pendent; involucre much longer than nut, open at apex, divided almost to base into many +long-acuminate or linear serrate lobes, densely covered with glandular hairs; nut globose or +roundish-ovate, about 2 cm long, hard. Flowers late winter to early spring; fruits fall.^^® +Germplsm — Reported from the Near East Center of Diversity, Turkish filbert, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, frost, poor soil, shade, and slo p e .C . colurna var. +glandulifera DC. has glandular-setose petioles and peduncles, with the lobes of involucre +less acute and more dentate. Some selectins are heavy producers. Many other named botanical +varieties, x C. colurnoides C. K. Sch. is a hybrid of C. avellana x C. colurna, grown +in Germany. (2n = +Distribution — Native to southeastern Europe and southwestern Siberia, south to the +western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitudes from 1,500 to 3,000 m; common +in Kashmir forests; also found in Afghanistan, Balkan Peninsula, and Rumania. Extensively +cultivated in Turkey. +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Dry Forest +Life Zones, Turkish filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.2 to 14.7 dm +(mean of 8 cases = 8.8), annual temperature of 8.4 to 18.6°C (mean of 8 cases = 12.0°C), +and pH of 5.3 to 7.2 (mean of 8 cases = 6.6).®^ A temperate plant, but not quite hardy +northward into the U.S. and Europe. Thrives on deep, fertile, well-drained soils, in regions +where summer temperatures are comparatively cool and winters uniform and mild. Winters +too mild or too severe injure both catkins and wood. Also winters with alternate thawing +and freezing are injurious. For best cultivation, winter temperatures should not drop below +- 10°C.2"« +Cultivation — Turkish filbert is propagated from seeds or graftings on seedling stock. +Since it does not sucker or stool, as do most species of C orylu s, its seedlings are used as +understocks for horticultural varieties of the European and American species. Trees should +be planted 5 to 7 m or more apart, except for hybrid varieties, which are small-growing and +can be planted 3 to 5 m apart. Trees should be planted in late winter or very early spring, +after danger of severe freezing has passed. The same general methods of planting should +be used as for apple or peach trees. Newly transplanted and young trees should be cultivated +sufficiently to destroy all grass and weed growth before the beginning of tree growth in +spring and through July. Mulching trees with any type of organic matter is equally as +satisfactory as cultivation, provided that sufficient mulch is applied. In general, the same +cultural practices used for peaches are satisfactory for filberts. Filberts generally respond +readily to fertilizer applications, although no recommendation would apply to all conditions. +On most soils, it is not advisable to apply any fertilizer the first year after transplanting. +Beginning the second year, about 475 gm (1 lb) per tree of a 5-10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should +be broadcast around tree just before beginning of tree growth. Amount of fertilizer increased +125 +475 gm (1 lb) per year until the tenth or twelfth year, and from then on apply about 4.7 kg +(10 lbs) per tree per year. Prune trees to desirable shape and remove dead or broken branches. +Since Turkish filberts do not sucker, little attention is given to the trees after they are +established.^^® +Harvesting — Nuts are harvested in fall. Trees bear every third year, beginning the +eighth year. However, in Turkey where they are extensively cultivated for the nuts, trees +yield annually from the fourth year onwards up to the twentieth year. Nuts of Turkish filberts +are said to be as good in quality as the English hazelnut. Nuts of some varieties drop free +from husk while others must be removed from husk by hand. Fallen nuts should be gathered +2 to 4 times during the harvest season as they do not all mature at same time. Those that +drop early should not be left on ground because of loss by rodents and birds, and because +of discoloration and moldiness due to wet weather. Nuts should be promptly dried by +spreading them in a thin layer in a dry place having good air circulation. Nuts dried in an +unheated building usually require 4 to 6 weeks for drying. During this process the nuts +should be stirred frequently to prevent molding. Temperature of nuts dried by artificial heat +should not exceed 46°C (115°F) — otherwise they will not store well. Kernels of fully dried +nuts are firm and brittle and will break with a sharp snap when hit with a hammer or crushed +with the fingers. +Yields and economics — No specific data on yields separate from that of other filberts +cultivated in same areas, as Turkey and southeast Europe. However, some selections are +said to be very good producers of nuts. Extensively cultivated in Turkey, and to a lesser +degree in southeast Europe and western Asia, south into temperate Himalayas. Although +trees are said to yield a good crop, production figures are not separated from production of +other European or Asiatic filberts. +Energy — Like other members of the genus C orylu s, this holds little promise as an +energy species, but can provide firewood and seed oils. As a tree species, it can provide +higher quality firewood than shrubby species of C orylus. +Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack Turkish filbert: H yposylon +m ultiform e, L enzites jap ó n ica , M icrosph aeria alni, P hyllactinia corylea, and Pucciniastrum +coryli. The bacterium P seudom onas colurnae has been isolated from this species. Mycorrhiza +are necessary in the soil. As staminate and pistillate flowers do not always become fertile +on the same tree at the same time, and since most filberts are self-unfruitful, for commercial +production, several varieties should be planted near each other for cross pollination, thus +assuring good nut production. +126 Handbook of Nuts +CO RYLU S CORNU TA Marsh (BETULACEAE) Beaked Filbert +Syn.: C orylu s rostrata Ait. +Uses — Nuts used for human food and wildlife food; plants used for erosion control and +cover and for basket splints. +Folk medicine — Ojibwa Indians used a poultice of boiled bark to help close and heal +wounds; Potawatomi used the inner bark as an astringent.^‘^ +Chemistry — No data available. +Description — Deciduous shrub, 0.6 to 3 m tall, thicket-forming, sometimes a small tree +to 10 m tall; bark smooth; branchlets pubescent, villous or glabrous, later glabrescent, not +bristly; leaves 6 to 10 cm long, ovate or narrowly oval, acuminate, cordate or obtuse at +base, incised-serrate or serrulate on margins, glabrous or with scattered appressed hairs +above, sparsely pubescent beneath, at least along veins; petioles glandless, 0.4 to 0.8 cm +long; mature involucral of connate bracts 4 to 7 cm long, densely bristly toward base, usually +rather abruptly constructed into an elongated beak, cut at summit into narrowly triangular +lobes; nut ovoid, brown, compressed, striate, 1.2 to 2.3 cm long. Flowers February to May; +fruits July to September; seed dispersal July to winter. +Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, beaked filbert, +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, slope, smog, and S02-®^ Among botanical varieties +are the following: C. cornuta forma inerm is Fern., a form in Quebec with non-bristly +involucres; C. Cornunta var. californica (A. DC.) Sharp (C. californica (A.DC.) Rose), a +variety found on the West Coast. (2n = 28.)^^® +Distribution — Native to eastern North America from Newfoundland and Quebec to +British Columbia, south to Georgia and Missouri, and on the west coast from California +northward. Cultivated else where. +Ecology — Ranging from Boreal Moist through Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet Forest +Life Zones, beaked filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.5 to 11.6 dm +(mean of 10 cases = 6.8), annual temperature of 5.7 to 12.5°C (mean of 10 cases = 8.1°C), +and pH of 5.0 to 7.5 (mean of 9 cases = 6.5).^^ Naturally thrives in moist woods and +thickets, on low hillsides, in rich, well-drained soil. When cultivated, shrubs should be +planted in soils which are deep, fertile, and well-drained. Heavy clay or silt soils as well +as coarse, deep sand should be avoided. When planted on poorly drained soils, the shrub +grows poorly, is subject to winter injury, and bears few nuts.^^® +Cultivation — Most filberts offered for sale by nurserymen have been propagated by +layering and are on their own roots. Trees or shrubs grown for 1 or 2 years in nursery after +the layers have been removed from parent stock are preferable to older plants. Some nurs­ +erymen propagated their stock on Turkish filbert roots that do not produce suckers. This +rootstock generally outgrows the scion to some extent. Beaked filberts can be propagated +from seed which has been stratified for 60 to 90 days at 5°C. Germination is hypogeous. +Natural seed dispersal is chiefly by animals. Stratified seed are planted in spring. However, +seed may be planted in fall in drills and protected from rodents. Horticultural varieties are +propagated by suckers, layering, budding or grafting, and cuttings. Filberts of all varieties +should be planted 5 to 7 m or more apart. In most cases, trees or shrubs are planted in late +winter or very early spring, after danger of severe freezing is passed. The same general +methods of planting should be used as for apple or peach trees. Newly transplanted and +young plants should be cultivated sufficiently to destroy all grass and weed growth before +the beginning of tree growth in spring and through July. Mulching plants with any type of +organic matter is equally as satisfactory as cultivation, provided that sufficient mulch is +applied. In general, the same cultural practices used for peaches are satisfactory for filberts. +Filberts generally respond favorably to fertilizer applications, although no recommendation +would apply to all situations. On most soils it is not advisable to apply any fertilizer the +127 +first year after transplanting. Beginning the second year, about 475 g (1 lb) per tree of a 5- +10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should be broadcast around the tree just before the beginning of tree +growth. The amount of fertilizer is increased 475 g/year until plants are 10 to 12 years old; +after that, about 4.7 kg per plant is sufficient. Pruning filberts is done to balance top with +loss of roots in planting operations, to train young trees to desired form, to remove dead, +broken or diseased branches, or to stimulate moderate growth on new shoots on old trees. +At planting, tree should be cut back to about 60 cm above the ground, leaving 4 to 6 branches +to grow. Trees or shrubs should be trained to the central leader form, provided it does not +mean removal of much wood. The more wood removed from young plants, the later they +come into bearing; therefore, only necessary pruning should be done. Pruning should be +done after pollen shedding is over and anthers have fallen. Since beaked filberts or hazelnuts +tend to sucker, the suckers should be removed promptly and the plant trained to a single +stem. Suckers should be removed at the point on the trunk or root where they originate; +cutting them off at surface of soil only increases the number that grow. Suckering operations +should be done 3 to 4 times a year, as they are easier to remove when young.^^^ +Harvesting — Fruits should be gathered by hand from bushes as soon as edges of husks +turn brown. Fruits should be spread out in a thin layer to dry for a short time, for about 4 +to 6 days. Then husks are removed by flailing. The nuts, which are the commençai seeds, +may be sown, stratified, or stored. Storage in sealed containers at 5°C will retain some +viability in C. cornuta for at least 2 years. +Yields and economics — Beaked filberts yield well every 2 to 5 years, and give a light +crop every year. Great quantities of hazelnuts are gathered each year for local home-use in +northeastern and northwestern U.S. and Canada. Many more are used as food for wildlife. +No exact figures are available on production. Hazelnuts are usually sold as mixed nuts, +especially during the winter months and holidays.^^^ +Energy — Probably no more promising than other C ory lus species for energy potential. +Biotic factors — Most filbert varieties are self-unfruitful, even though staminate and +pistillate catkins are on the same tree or bush. Cross-pollination must be provided for +satisfactory fruit production. In all plantings, two or more varieties should be included. The +period of pistillate flowering is usually much longer than that of pollen-shedding on a +particular variety. Furthermore, pollen on one variety must be shed at the time when pistillate +flowers of the other variety are receptive. The following fungi are known to attack beaked +filberts or hazelnut plants: A pioporth e anom ala, C ercospora corylina, C ucurbitaria con- +globata, D iaporth e decedens, D ia tryp ella m inutispora, G loeosporium coryli, G. rostratum , +G nom oniella coryli, H ym enochaete agglutinans, M elanconis fla vo viren s, M icrosph aeria +alni, N ectria coryli, P ezicu la corylina, P hyllactin ia corylea, P hym atotrichum om nivorum , +P olysporus albellus, P . elegans, P. radiatus, P . stereoides, S eptoria corylina, and Sphaer- +opsis corylii. Among the insect pests, hazelnut weevil, in severe infestations, may completely +destroy the crop of nuts. Leaves are preferred food for Japanese beetles, and plants may be +completely defoliated by them. Filbert bud mite may be a pest problem. For control of all +pests, consult local State agent. +128 Handbook of Nuts +CORYLUS FEROX Wall. (BETULACEAE) — Himalayan or Tibetan Filbert +Syn.: Corylus tibetica Ratal, {thibetica) and Corylus ferox var. thibetica Franch. +Uses — Kernel of nut edible, used raw, roasted, or in cookery, and as a flavoring. +Folk medicine — No data available. +Chemistry — No data available. +Description — Deciduous tree to 10 m tall; young branches silky-hairy; leaves 7.5 to +12.5 cm long, oblong, ovate to obovate-oblong, usually rounded at base, acuminate, doubly +serrate, glabrous except along veins beneath, 12 to 14 pairs of veins; involucre glabrescent +to tomentose, forming a spiny bur about 3 cm across, longer than nut, consisting of 2 distinct +bracts; nuts from about twice in diameter as long to twice as long as wide.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Himalayan filbert, +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost and slope. (2n = 22,28.)^^ +Distribution — Native to central and western China to Tibet and central Himalaya, up +to 3,300 m altitude. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate to Moist Forest Life Zones, Himalayan filbert +is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 12.0 dm, annual temperature of 14.8°C, and +pH of 5.5.®^ Thrives in temperate forests on well-drained soils. +Cultivation — This filbert is rarely cultivated, but rather, trees are taken care of in the +forest. Propagation is by natural distribution of seeds. +Harvesting — Nuts are collected from native trees in the forest in the fall. Drying and +storage procedures are about the same as for other filberts. +Yields and economics — No yield data available. Locally in central Asia, these filberts +are gathered and sold in local markets. They do not enter international trade. +Energy — Not a promising energy species. +Biotic factors — No data available. +129 +CORYLUS HETEROPHYLLA Fisch. ex Besser (BETULACEAE) — Siberian Filbert +Uses — Kernels of nuts used raw, roasted, cooked, or in confections. +Folk medicine — Reported to be aperitif and digestive. +Chemistry — No data available. +Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree to 4 m tall; branchlets pubescent and +glandular-pilose when young; leaves 5 to 12 cm long and about as wide, orbicular-obovate +to deltoid-obovate, cordate at base, nearly truncate and abruptly acuminate at apex and with +a very short point, margins irregularly toothed or incisely serrate, green on both sides, +glabrous above, pubescent on veins beneath, petioles up to 13 cm long, pubescent and +glandular-pilose; involucre companulate, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, somewhat longer than nut, +striate, glandular-setose near base, lobes of bracts entire or sparingly dentate, triangular; +nuts 1 to 3 in a cluster, at ends of branchlets, on stalks to 3 cm long, subglobose, about +1.5 cm across. Flowers May; fruits August. +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan and Eurosiberian Centers of Diversity, +Siberian filbert, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, low pH, and slope.Several +botanical varieties are known, and some are cultivated in northern Asia. C. heterophylla +var. yezoensis Koidz. (C. yezoensis (Koidz.) Nakai) — leaves obovate-orbicular to broadly +obovate, abruptly short acuminate, rarely glandular-pilose; involucres sparsely glandular- +pilose; Japan (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu). Other varieties are var. thunbergii Blume, var. +crista-galli Burkill, var. setchuensis Franch., and var. yunnanensis Franch.®^’^^® (2n = 28.) +Distribution — Native to eastern Siberia, eastern Mongolia, Manchuria, northern China +(Tschili), Ussuri, Amur, Korea; introduced and cultivated in Japan and France; probably +elsewhere. +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate to Moist through Warm Temperate Dry to +Moist Forest Life Zones, Siberian filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 12.0 +to 14.7 dm (mean of 2 cases = 13.4), annual temperature of 14.8 to 14.8°C (mean of 2 +cases == 14.8°C), and pH of 5.3 to 5.5 (mean of 2 cases = 5.4).®^ Naturally found along +woods and on mountain slopes, often forming dense thickets. Thrives in cool temperate +regions on soil with good drainage. +Cultivation — Modest requirements greatly facilitate cultivation. Propagated from seed, +usually distributed naturally in the forest, and by suckers. The most elementary care of wild +stands results in considerable improvement in yield and quality of nuts.^^® +Harvesting — Nuts are probably collected in the fall. +Yields and economics — Nuts harvested commercially in Northern Asia, usually from +wild plants only. Does not enter international markets; usually marketed locally. +Energy — Not a promising energy species. +Biotic factors — No data available. +130 Handbook of Nuts +CO RYLU S MAXIMA Mill. (BETULACEAE) Giant or Lambert’s Filbert +Syn.: C orylu s tu bu losa Willd. +Uses — Widely cultivated for the nuts in Europe; used as roasted or salted nuts, or as +flavoring in confections and pastries. Sometimes naturalized, and of some interest as an +ornamental, especially the red-leaved form, found in parks in the Caucasus. This species is +considered the progenitor in Europe from which most cultivated filberts have been developed: +C. avellana is more often called the cobnut. +Folk medicine — No data available. +Chemistry — No data available. +Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree, up to 10 m tall; branches somtimes glabrous, +mostly stipitate-glandular; leaves 7.5 to 15 cm long, 6 to 10 cm broad, orbicular, cordate +at base, short-acuminate, slightly lobed, doubly serrate, very often red, pubescent beneath; +petiole 1 to 2.5 cm long; staminate aments to 10 cm long,l cm in diameter; involucre tubular, +contracted above the nut, forming a gradually narrowed elongated deeply laciniate husk, +dentate at apex, finely pubescent outside, lower part fleshy, enveloping nut, splitting at +maturity; nut ovoid, sometimes subcylindrical, acuminate; kernel with thin red or white +skin. Flowers March; fruits September. +Germplasm — Reported from the Central Asia and Near East Centers of Diversity, giant +filbert, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, low pH, and slope. C. maxim a var. +purpurea Rehd. (C. avellana (var.)pu rpurea Loud., C. m axim a var. atropurpúrea Dochnahl) +has dark purple-red leaves. There are many varieties with large nuts. Cultivated forms are +partly hybrids with C. avellana, (2n = 22,28.)^^’^^® +Distribution — Native to southeastern Europe, from Italy and Yugoslavia to Greece, +Turkey, and western Asia. Widely cultivated elsewhere in Europe and sometimes naturalized. +Cultivated in Crimea and on the Black Sea Coast for more than a century. +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Wet through Warm Temperate Moist to Wet +Forest Life Zones, the giant filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.3 to 16.7 +dm (mean of 2 cases = 10.5 dm), annual temperature of 9.7 to 14.8°C (mean of 2 cases += 12.3°C), and pH of 5.3 to 6.8 (mean of 2 cases = 6.1). Thrives in a cool to warm +temperate climate under soil and climatic conditions similar to those for C. avellana. +Cultivation — See C orylus am ericana. +Harvesting — The harvesting of nuts begins in September. The beaked involucre must +be removed by hand, and then the nuts are dried for storage until marketed or used. After +removing the husk, nuts are spread out to dry in thin layers in a dry place having good air- +circulation. Nuts dried in an unheated building usually require 4 to 6 weeks for drying. They +should be stirred frequently to prevent molding. The temperature of nuts dried by artificial +heat should not be higher than 45°C; otherwise they will not store well.^^® +Yields and economics — The species and its cultivars and hybrids are reported to be +good producers. Southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia, especially Crimea and the +Black Sea Region, are major producers. However, this filbert is not separated from the +Turkish and other filberts grown in the region. Prices vary from $125 to $150/ton for Turkish +filberts. About 240,000 MT of nuts are produced annually in Turkey and adjacent areas. +Energy — Although not a promising energy species, this is one of the better species of +C orylus for energy production. +Biotic factors — Fungi known to attack this filbert include: M ycosph aerella puntiform is, +P hyllactinia corylea, and Sphaeragnm onia carpinea. The bacterium, X anthom onas coryli, +also attack the plant. In some areas, winter injury may be serious. Pests include: Lecanium +corni (soft scale) and M yzocallis coryli (aphids). +131 +COULA EDULIS Baill. (OLACACEAE) — African Walnut, Gabon Nut, Almond Wood +Uses — The fruits, sold in Cameroon markets, have agreeably edible kernels, resembling +hazelnuts or chestnuts. They are eaten fresh, boiled in the shell, roasted, boiled, and pounded +and made into cakes. Some tribes ferment the fruits underground. The timber is red to +reddish-brown, closegrained, hard, heavy, resistant to water, and immune to insects, e.g., +termites, through liable to split. Suitable for house posts, railway sleepers, bridge-piles, and +charcoal, it has been suggested for heavy carpentry, stair treads, doors, turnery, and boat +and carriage construction. Durable under water, the wood can be used for bridges and +pilings.T he fruit shells make finger-rings in Nigeria. +Folk medicine — The stomachic bark decoction is used for dysentery in Liberia. Powdered +bark is used in Equatorial Africa for dressing sores, and in decoctions to stimulate appetite +and counteract anemia, or in enemas for dysentery. Liberians believe the fruits eliminate +boils. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 505 calories, 7.9 g protein, +25.7 g fat, 64.3 g total carbohydrate, 2.4 g fiber, 2.1 g ash, 180 mg Ca, and 269 mg P.®^ +DalzieF^ and Irvine^"^^ suggest that the oil content is closer to 50 than 25%. The seed fat is +very high in oleic acid (87 to 95%), with 3% linoleic, and 1.7% palmitic + stearic acids. +Menninger cites a source suggesting 87% oleic. +Toxicity — Leaves said to be poisonous.W ood can cause allergy or asthma in wood­ +workers.^'^ +Description — Medium-sized tree to 20 m tall and 2 m girth; crown deep, dense; buttresses +132 Handbook of Nuts +slight or none; bark fairly smooth, thin, brownish-green; slash brown or yellow, white and +resinous in young trees, darkening to pink; young parts reddish-brown-hairy. Leaves 30 x +8 cm, often rusty, papery, elliptic to oblong-elliptic, glabrous, alternate; tip long-caudate- +acuminate; base cuneate; midrib slightly raised above; lateral nerves up to 14 pairs, sub­ +parallel, sunken above and raised below; petiole 2 to 3 cm long, usually twisted, rusty- +puberulous. Flowers (April to May, October to January) in rusty-brown axillary panicles; +calyx small, cup-shaped; petals 5, fairly thick; stamens 10. Fruit a drupe, ellipsoid-globose, +4 X 3 cm, nut-shell hard, rough ca. 4 mm thick, breaking into 3 portions when ripe, difficult +to break. +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity. +Distribution — Sierra Leone to Gabon and Zaire; Liberia, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, +Nigeria, Cameroon. +Ecology — Reported from evergreen and deciduous forests, gabon nut is estimated to +range from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, +tolerating annual precipitation of 8 to 35 dm, annual temperature of 23 to 28°C, and pH of +6.0 to 8.0. +Cultivation — Can be grown as a plantation timber crop with the oil or nut as a by­ +product. +Harvesting — In Angola, north of the Congo River, the nuts mature from December to +April.In Nigeria, it flowers January to May, fruiting in August. +Yields and economics — Apparently sold only in Cameroon markets. +Energy — The wood is suitable for charcoal*'*^ and it is so used in Gabon. The extremely +hard wood has a density of 1.073. +Biotic factors — The wood is termite resistant. +133 +CYCAS CIRCINALIS L. (CYCADACEAE) — Cica, Crazier Cycas +Uses — Speaking of Cycads in general, Egolf (in Menninger^®’) says +Cycad nuts are rather large, many of them an inch across. They are fat and rounded, full of +starch, and mostly covered by a brilliant orange or reddish outer coat. They look as if they +are meant to be good to eat. The poisonous substance in Cycads is soluble in water. It can +be leached from the nuts or from the starchy center of the trunk by water, rendering them +fit to eat. It is impossible now to tell what primitive genius first discovered that such tempting +nuts could be made free of their poison. Perhaps some tribesman, wits sharpened by hunger, +found that Cycad nuts shed into a jungle pool, partially decomposed by water, could be eaten +whereas those fresh from the plant could not. Where the nuts are eaten they may be treated +whole, with repeated changes of water, and then beaten to a flour for cooking, or the raw +nuts may be beaten and the pulp washed in water and strained through a cloth . . . However +it happened, in nearly every tropical country where Cycads grow men sooner or later found +they could use the nuts for food. They are not an important staple, because nowhere do +Cycads grow in dense profusion, but in times of famine, when there is little else to eat, they +are as welcome as the finest delicacy. +In Guam, they eat the green husk, fresh or dried, or they cut, soak, and sun-dry it. Indians +eat the fruit with sugar. In Java, Sumatra, Sri Lanka, and the Phillipines, the shoots and +leaves are used as a potherb. In Fiji they boil the kernels until they are soft. Indochinese +pound, soak, settle, and dry the kernels. Africans split the seeds, sun dry them for ca. 4 +days, ferment them in a tin with banana leaves for a week, remove the mold, soak another +day, pulverize, and use as a porridge.Sap from the kernels has been said to be given to +children in the Celebes for “ population control.” Crushed seed also used to poison fish. A +gum can be extracted from breaks in the megasporophylls.^*^ Surface fibers from the leaves +have been made into cloth. +Folk medicine — Reported to be carminative, narcotic, and poison, C. circinalis is a +folk remedy for nausea, sores, swellings, and thirst. Terminal buds are crushed in rice-water +for adenitis, furuncles, and ulcerous sores. Seeds are applied to malignant and varicose +wounds and ulcers. Seeds are squeezed and grafted onto tropical ulcers in Guam. The gum +is used for snakebite in India. Filipinos roast and grate the seeds, applying them in coconut +oil to boils, itch, and wounds. Indians poultice the female cones onto nephritic pain, using +the male bracts as aphrodisiac, anodyne, and narcotic. The gum, which expands many times +in water, is said to produce rapid suppuration when applied to malignant ulcers. The gum +also has a reputation for treating bugbite and snakebite. +Chemistry — Seeds contain ca. 31% starch,-2 toxic glycoside, pakoeine, phytosterin, +and a reducing sugar.^° The pollen is said to be narcotic. Seeds possess antibiotic activity. +Sequoyitol is also reported, as is alpha-amino-beta-methylaminopropionic acid. +Caution — FATALITIES are attributed to eating improperly prepared nuts. Many of +Captain’s Cook’s voyagers vomited following the ingestion of cycad nuts. Symptoms of +poisoning include headache, violent retching, vertigo, swelling of the stomach and legs, +depression, stupor, euphoria, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, tenesmus, muscle paralysis, and +rheumatism. +Description — Evergreen ornamental shrub or small tree to 6 m tall, unbranched except +by accident, such as cutting of apex. Trunk stout with hard outer layer like bark, light +brown-gray, slightly scaly, becoming slightly fissured. Leaves apically crowded with stout +axis with 2 rows of short spines replacing leaflets toward base. Leaflets thick, stiff, hairless, +mostly opposite, 15 to 30 cm long, 1 to 2 cm broad, straight or curved, long-pointed at +apex, with prominent yellowish midvein, but without other visible veins. Male cones large, +brown, hard, and woody. Female trees produce a ring of light-brown wooly fertile leaves +6 to 12 inches long. Each leaf bears in notches along the axis 4 to 10 naked elliptic or nut­ +like seeds, hard with thin outer flesh. +134 Handbook of Nuts +Germplasm — Reported from the African and Indochina-Indonesian Centers of Diversity, +cica, or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate some shade and waterlogging. +Distribution — Old World Tropics, Native from Tropical Africa through southern Asia +and Pacific Islands. Pantropically introduced. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to +Wet Forest Life Zones, cica is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 50 dm, +annual temperature of 21 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0. Hardy to Zone 10b. +Cultivation — Rarely cultivated for food, more often cultivated as an ornamental. Easily +propagated from suckers or sprouts at the base of parent plants. Grows slowly. +Harvesting — For sago starch, the trunks should be felled before fruiting (usually at +about 7 years). Since the felling of the trunk precludes fruiting, it follows that seeds are +harvested from older trees. +Yields and economics — A cycas is said to produce annually ca. 550 seeds, yielding +about as much starch (ca. 2 kg) as an irreplaceable stem ca. 1 m long. Extraction of starch +from the seeds is said to be more economical. +Energy — Since felling these trees is fatal, they are rarely, if ever, used as energy sources. +Biotic factors — No data available. +135 +CYCAS REVOLUTA Thunb. (CYCADACEAE) — Cycad Nut, Sotesu Nut +Uses—(see Cycas circinalis.) Exported from Japan as an ornamental, used in Japan for +bonsai. According to Thieret,^*^ the fleshy testa (sweet and mucilaginous) and the starchy +kernels are both eaten. The roasted kernels, like so many other nondescripts, are said to +taste like chestnuts. Seeds are eaten by the Annamese of China, though preparation is tough. +Japanese use the young leaves as a potherb,and the cycad meal as a food extender and +for the preparation of sake, the sake called doku sake, or poisonous sake. A sago starch is +extracted from the pith and cortex of the stem before fruiting. It has been said, perhaps +exaggerated, that a small portion of the pith can support life for a long time. Gum is extracted +from wounds on the megasporophylls.^’^ Surface fibers from the leaves have been made +into cloth. Leaves are used for funeral decorations.^^ +Folk medicine — Reported to be emmenagogue, expectorant, fattening, and tonic, C. +revoluta is a folk remedy for hepatoma and tumors.^' The down from the inflorescence has +been used as a styptic, the terminal shoot as astringent, and diuretic. Seeds used as astringent, +emmenagogue, expectorant, and tonic, used for rheumatism.*^ “ The products extracted from +the seeds are useful to inhibit growth of malignant tumors. The gum, which expands +many times in water, is said to produce rapid suppuration when applied to malignant ulcers. +The gum also has a reputation for treating bugbite and snakebite. +Chemistry — Thieret^’^ reports the kernels contain 12 to 14% CP and 66 to 70% starch. +Whiting^^* reports that fresh kernels contain 7% protein, 33% starch, dry kernels 12% protein, +60% starch, the pith 7 and 41, the fresh outer husk of the seed 4 and 21, the dry outer husk +10% protein, and 46% starch. Airdry stems contain 44.5% starch and 9.15% CP. Male +plants run 27 to 61% starch, averaging over 50% over the year; female stems average only +26%. Root nodules contain about 18% starch. Formaldehyde is reported from the kernels, +but cycasin (C8H16O7N2) is probably the culprit, in both nuts and pith. Thieret^^ reports that +the testa contains ca. 4% oil, the seeds 20 to 23.5% oil (an oil used during crises on Okinawa +during World War II). Duke and Ayensu^ report the seeds (ZMB) contain 13.9 to 15.4 g +protein, and 0.9 to 1.0 g fat. Also reported to contain 14% crude protein, 68% soluble non- +nitrogenous substances, and 0.16 to 0.22% combined formaldehyde, 90% of which can be +washed out with water. Seeds may yield 20.44% fat, the component fatty acids of which +are palmitic-, stearic-, oleic-, and a small amount of behenic-acid. Seeds contain 0.2 to +0.3% neocycasin A, neocycasin B, and macrozamin, and cycasin. Trunk contains mucilage +with xylose, glucose, and galactose. The wax composition is detailed in Hager’s Hand­ +book.'*^ Cycasin is carcinogenic to pigs and rats if ingested orally.*^ It also induces chro­ +mosomal aberrations in onion root tips. +Caution — FATALITIES are attributed to eating improperly prepared nuts. +Description — Trunk 1.8 m, densely clothed with the old leaf-bases. Leaves 0.6 to 1.8 +m long; petiole thick, quadrangular; leaflets narrow, margin re volute. Carpophylls 10 to 23 +cm long, blade ovate, laciniate nearly to midrib, stalk longer than blade, with 4 to 6 ovules. +Immature seed densely tomentose.'^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the Sino-Japanese Center of Diversity, this cycad, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, floods, poor soil, slope, and typhoons. +Distribution — China, S. Japan, Formosa, Tonkin. Cultivated in Indian gardens. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Warm Temperate Dry (without frost) to Wet through +Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life zones, C. revoluta is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation +of 8 to 40 dm, annual temperature of 17 to 25°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. Tolerates the poorer +steep soils of the Ryukyu’s. Hardy to Zone 9.^"^^ +Cultivation — Rarely cultivated for food, more often cultivated as an ornamental. Easily +propagated from suckers or sprouts at the base of parent plants. Grows slowly. +Harvesting — For sago starch, the trunks should be felled before fruiting (usually at +136 Handbook of Nuts +about 7 years). Since the felling of the trunk precludes fruiting, it follows that seeds are +harvested from older trees. +Yields and economics — Thieret^'^ reported that an estimated 3 million cycas leaves +with a gross value of ca. $30,000 were imported annually to the U.S. +Energy — Since felled trees do not coppice, these trees are rarely, if ever, used as energy +sources. +Biotic factors — In the Ryukyu Islands, the poisonous habu viper nests in the top of this +cycad. +137 +CYCAS RUMPHII Miq. (CYCADACEAE) — Pakoo Adji, Pakis Adji, Pahoo Hadji, Akor +Uses — (See Cyas circinalis.) A well-known oriental ornamental, this fem-like tree is +often planted, e.g., in cemeteries. The young shoots, shortly before unfolding, are cooked +as a potherb, often with fish. Eating too much is said to cause rheumatism. The poisonous +nuts are rendered edible by various types of elaborate processing. Steeping in water seems +to be one of the most common methods of preparation. In the Moluccas, a delicacy is made +by cutting the kernels into bars, putting them in a porous bag, and steeping in sea-water for +a few days. Then the bars are sun dried, pulverized in a basket, and mixed with brown +sugar and coconut. The starchy pith and cortex of the stem may be eaten after cooking. +Stems for “ sago” starch should be harvested before fruiting. Gums are extracted from +wounded megasporophylls.^*^ Stems are used in Indonesia to build small houses. +Folk medicine — A folk remedy for colic in Java.^‘ The resin is applied to malignant +ulcers, exciting suppuration in an incredibly short time. In Cambodia, the leafless bulb is +brayed in water, rice-water, or water holding fine particles of clay in suspension, and applied +to ulcerated wounds, swollen glands, and boils. The gum also has a reputation for treating +bugbite and snakebite. +Chemistry — Probably parallels that of Cycas revoluta. +Description — Small, dioecious gummiferous tree, 1 to 6 m high, rarely higher. Trunk +terete, armored by the persistent petiole bases. Leaves in a dense terminal whorl, glabrous, +shortly petioled, pinnate, with 50 to 150 pairs patent leaflets, glaucous, shining above, 1.5 +to 2.5 m long; leaflets linear-lanceolate, usually somewhat recurved; 1-nerved; the central +leaflets 20 to 35 cm long, 1 to 2 cm wide, the lower ones gradually shorter and narrower; +armed on the edges. Male cone stalked, oblong-ellipsoid, yellowish-brown, 30 to 70 cm +long, 12 to 17 cm wide, with numerous spirally arranged stamens; stamens cuneate with +upcurved acuminate tips, 3.5 to 6 cm long; the higher ones smaller, anantherous. Female +cone terminal, after anthesis producing new leaves at the apex; carpophylls numerous, densely +crowded, densely yellowish-brown tomentose along the edges with 2 to 9 big, short ovules, +25 to 50 cm long; tips of the carpophylls oblong, serrate, terminated by a long, entire, +upcurved point. Seeds ellipsoid or ovoid-ellipsoid, orange when ripe, 3 to 6 cm long, 2.5 +to 5 cm diam.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian and Australian Centers of +Diversity. +138 Handbook of Nuts +Distribution — Burma, Malaya, Andamans, Nicobars, Moluccas, New Guinea, and N. +Australia, cultivated in India. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to +Wet Forest Life Zones, C. rumphii is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 50 +dm, annual temperature of 21 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0. +Cultivation — Rarely cultivated for food, more often cultivated as an ornamental. Easily +propagated from suckers or sprouts at the base of parent plants. Grows slowly. +Harvesting — For sago starch, the trunks should be felled before fruiting (usually at +about 7 years). Since the felling of the trunk precludes fruiting, it follows that seeds are +harvested from older trees. +Yields and Economics — A cycas is said to produce annually ca. 550 seeds, yielding +about as much renewable starch (ca. 2 kg) as an irreplaceable stem ca. 1 m long. Extraction +of starch from the seeds is hence said to be more economical. +Energy — Rarely, if ever, used as energy sources. +Biotic Factors — No data available. +139 +CYPERUS ESCULENTUS L. (CYPERACEAE) — Tigemut, Yellow Nutsedge, Chufa +Uses — Grown for the edible tubers, eaten when dry, raw, boiled, or roasted. Juice +pressed from fresh tubers is consumed in quantities in Europe, especially in Spain, as a +beverage, called Horchata de Chufas; sometimes it is chilled or frozen. Nuts used as substitute +for coffee; or for almonds in confectionery, or made into a kind of chocolate. In Africa, +nuts used in the form of milk pap, made by grinding fresh nuts fine and straining; then +boiling with wheat flour and sugar. Roasted nuts are ground and sieved to produce a fine +meal, a high caloric value, which is added along with sugar and other ingredients to water +as a beverage, or even eaten dry. Oil used for soap-making.^^* Used as a famine food.^^^ +The haulm is grazed by stock, plaited into rough ropes in Lesotho, and is suitable for making +paper pulp.^^ Tubers are relished by hogs, which are used to suppress the plant when it +becomes w e e d y .It has already infested more than 1,000,000 ha in the eastern U.S.*^^ +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the tubers are used in folk remedies for +felons and cancers. Reported to be aphrodisiac, astringent, CNS-sedative, CNS-tonic, dia­ +phoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient, excitant, lactagog, pectoral, puerperium, re­ +frigerant, sedative, stimulant, stomachic, sweetener, and tonic, tigemut is a folk remedy for +140 Handbook of Nuts +abscess, boils, cancer, colds, colic, felons, and flux.^* Medicinally, tubers are stimulant +and aphrodisiac.Decoction of rhizomes (including tubers) taken in Senegal for stomach +troubles; leaves poulticed onto forehead for migraine. In Lesotho, heavy consumption said +to cause constipation.^^ Young Zulu girls eat porridge mixed with a handful of boiled, +mashed root to hasten the inception of menstruation. Root chewed by the Zulu for relief of +indigestion, especially when accompanied by halitosis. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the root (ZMB) is reported to contain 461 to 476 calories, 5.5 +to 6.5 g protein, 20.0 to 27.4 g fat, 65.1 to 72.6 g total carbohydrate, 10.5 to 11.7 g fiber, +1.9 to 2.8 g ash, 39.4 to 87.5 mg Ca, 230 to 321 mg P, 3.6 to 12.6 mg Fe, 0.13 to 0.44 +mg thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin, 2.05 mg niacin, and 4.7 mg ascorbic acid.*^ Tubers contain +20 to 36% of a nondrying, pleasant tasting edible oil, similar to olive oil.^^^ Another analysis +of tubers reported 14.15% moisture, 25.82% oil, 5.21% albuminoids, 22.72% starch, 24.79% +digestible carbohydrates, 5.83% fiber, 1.48% mineral matter. The oil is reported to contain +17.1% saturated acids and 75.8% unsaturated acids. The component fatty acids are: 0.01% +myristic, 11.8% palmitic, 5.2% stearic, 0.5% arachidic, 0.3% linoceric, 73.3% oleic, and +5.9% linoleic.^® Burkill'^^ reports the oil to be 73% oleic acid, 12 to 13% palmitic acid, 6 +to 8% linoleic acid, 5 to 6% stearic acid. Raw tubers of the genus C yperus have been +reported to contain per 100 g, 302 calories, 36.5% moisture, 3.5 g protein, 12.7 g fat, 46.1 +g carbohydrate, 7.4 g fiber, 1.2 g ash, 25 mg calcium, 204 mg phosphorus, 8.0 mg iron, +0.28 mg thiamine, 0.09 mg riboflavin, 1.3 mg niacin, and 3 mg ascorbic acid. Dried tubers +are reported to contain 452 calories, 11.8% moisture, 4.0 g protein, 25.3 g fat, 56.9 g +carbohydrate, 4.7 g fiber, 2.0 g ash, 48 mg calcium, 212 mg phosphorus, 3.2 mg iron, +0.23 mg thiamine, 0.10 mg riboflavin, 1.1 mg niacin, and 6 mg ascorbic acid.^^ +Toxicity — Contains cineole, hydrocyanic acid, and myristic acid.^^ +Description — Perennial herb, forming colonies with creeping thread-like rhizomes 1 to +1.5 mm thick; some forms have tuber-like thickenings on rhizomes, these plants rarely +flower. Tubers 1 to 2 cm long, roots fibrous; culms erect, 2 to 9 dm tall, simple, triangular. +Leaves several, 3-ranked, pale green, 4 to 9 mm wide, about as long as culm, with closed +sheaths mostly basal. Umbel terminal, simple or compound, the longest involucral leaf much +exceeding the umbel; spikelets 0.5 to 3 cm long, 1.5 to 3 mm broad, yellowish to golden- +brown, strongly flattened, mostly 4-ranked, occasionally 2-ranked, along the wing-angled +rachis, blunt, tip acute to round; scales thin, oblong, obtuse, distinctly veined, thin, dry at +tip, 2.3 to 3 mm long. Achene yellowish-brown, 3-angled, lustrous, ellipsoid or linear to +oblong-cylindric, rounded at summit, 1.2 to 1.5 mm long, granular-streaked. Flowers July +to September, fruiting through December in extreme south; various in other parts of the +world. +Germplasm — Reported from the Mediterranean Center of Diversity, tigemut, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate heavy soil, laterite, salt, sand, virus, weeds, and waterlogging, +but not shade.Several botanical varieties are recognized. Two varieties in the U.S. are +C. esculentus var. angustispicatus Britt., with spikelets less than 2 mm wide, tapering to +slender points, and C. esculentus var. m acrostachys Boeckl., with spikelets 2 to 3 mm wide, +uniformly linear and rounded at apex.^^® (2n = 18, 108.) +Distribution — Cosmopolitan, distributed in tropics, subtropics, and warmer temperate +regions of world, up to 2,000 m in some areas. Much cultivated in coastal regions of Ghana +and in some Mediterranean regions.Listed as a serious weed in Angola, Canada, Kenya, +Malagasy, Mozambique, Peru, South Africa, Tanzania, U.S., and Zimbabwe, a principal +weed in Australia, Hawaii, India, Mexico, and Switzerland, and a common weed in Ar­ +gentina, Iran, Portugal. +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to +Moist Forest Life Zones, tigemut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1.8 to 27.8 +dm (mean of 35 cases = 10.8), annual temperature of 6.9 to 27.5°C (mean of 34 cases = +141 +18.6°C), and pH of 4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 29 cases = 6.3).^^ Common in wet soil, often a +weed in cultivated fields and pastures. Often locally abundant and weedy in sandy disturbed, +unstable, or loamy soil. Tolerant of nearly any climatic or soil situation, provided there is +sufficient water. Often limited to low, poorly drained areas in fields.Hardy to Zone 3.^^^ +According to Holm et al.,^^^ the species grows very well “ on all soil types” ; including +black peat soils, and performs equally well at pH ranges from 5 to 7. More ecological data +are reported by Holm et al.‘^^ +Cultivation — Reproduces by seeds and weak thread-like stolons. Propagated in spring +by planting small tubers or chufas, similar to potatoes. Crop requires no cultivation or +fertilizers. +Harvesting — Tubers are harvested 5 to 6 months after planting. Two crops can be +attained in rainy season. Chufa Oil is obtained by pressing cleaned tubers. +Yields and economics — One tuber weighing 200 mg can produce 36 plants and 332 +tubers in 16 weeks, 1,900 plants and 7,000 tubers in one year. Holm et al.*^^ report as much +as 18 MT/ha tubers in the top 45 cm soil, with perhaps 30,000,000 tubers per hectare. +Yields of 800 kg root per hectare in 4 to 6 months have been rep o rted .Cyperus esculentus +is a serious weed in sugarcane in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, South Africa, and Swaziland; of +com in Angola, South Africa, Tanzania, and the U.S.; of cotton in Mozambique, the U.S., +and Zimbabwe; of soybeans in Canada and the U.S.; and of potatoes in Canada, South +Africa, and the U.S. More data are presented by Holm et +Energy — Although 18 MT tubers/ha might sound like good energy potential, it takes a +lot of energy to harvest them. Perhaps it is energetically wise to let pigs do the harvesting. +Leaving a field fallow 4 years has reduced tuber numbers significantly (912 to 7 per 30 +cm^), the equivalent of 21 to 1.6 MT/ha.Savel’eva et al.^^^ have considered this as a +possible raw material for industry in Russia. +Biotic factors — Bees visit the flowers in Sierra Leone as a source of pollen.The insect +Bactra verutana is of interest for biocontrol of the chufa weed. Chufa is an alternative host +of the vims which produces lucerne dwarf. The following fungi have been reported on +yellow nutsedge: Aspergillus niger, Puccinia canaliculata, P. conclusa, and P. romagno- +liana. Nematodes isolated include: Caconema radicicola, Heterodera cyperi, Meloidogyne +arenaria, and M. In addition, Ascochyta sp. and Phyllachora cyperi have +been reported.^ +142 Handbook of Nuts +CYPER U S R O T U N D U S L. (CYPERACEAE) Purple nutsedge +Uses — Considered the number one weed in many parts of the world,this sedge has +still been suggested as a landscape plant in China, and as a soil binder in India. Tuberous +rhizome, eaten in many areas as vegetable or chewed on, may be regarded as a famine food. +Plants used as fodder for cattle in West Africa and India. Tubers fed to pigs. Used as bait +for catching rats in Tanganyika. The tuber is burnt as a perfume in Tripoli. In Asia and +West Africa, the essential oil obtained from tubers, is used as a perfume for clothing and +to repel insects, probably due to the camphoraceous odor.^^^^^^^^ +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,purple nutsedge is used in folk remedies for +phymata, abdominal tumors, glandular tumors, hard tumors, indurations of the stomach, +liver, spleen, and uterus, and cervical cancer. Reported to be alterative, analgesic, anodyne, +anthelmintic, antihistamine, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericide, carminative, demulcent, +diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient, fungistatic, lactagogue, stimulant, sto­ +machic, tonic, tranquilizer, vasodilator, vermifuge, and vulnerary, purple nutsedge is a folk +remedy for abdominal ailments, amenorrhea, ascites, bladder ailments, bowel ailments, +cancer of the cervix, chest ailments, cholera, circulation, colds, congestion, depression, +diarrhea, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, dyspepsia, fever, headache, hemicrania, hypertension, +impotence, inflammation, metritis, metroxenia, scorpion bites, snake bites, sores, stomach +ailments, stomach-ache, toothaches, trauma, tumors of the abdomen, ulcers, and wounds. +In Mali the tubers are taken as an aphrodisiac. Made into a cough medicine for children. +Used in Africa and Asia for urinary troubles, indigestion, childbirth, jaundice, malaria, and +many other conditions.Plant used in Vietnam as a diuretic, emmenagogue, headache +remedy, and for uterine hemorrhage. The tuber is given to women in childbirth in Indo­ +china. The fresh tuber, made into a paste or warm plaster, is applied to the breast with +galactagogic intent, and, in a dry state to spreading ulcers, in the Indian Peninsula.The +tuber, in the form of ghees, powders, bolmes, and enemas is used as a folk remedy for +abdominal tumors. In Ghana, an infusion of the plant is given for cattle poisoning due to +Ipom oea repens +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the edible tuber should resemble that of C yperus esculentus, +which (ZMB) contains 461 to 476 calories, 5.5 to 6.5 g protein, 20.0 to 27.4 g fat, 65.1 +to 72.6 g total carbohydrate, 10.5 to 11.7 g fiber, 1.9 to 2.4 g ash, 29 to 88 mg Ca, 230 +to 321 mg P, 2.6 to 12.6 mg Fe, 0.13 to 0.44 mg thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin, 2.05 mg +niacin, and 5 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Tubers of C yperus rotundus include 0.5 to 1.0% essential +oil, 0.21 to 0.24% alkaloid, 0.62 to 0.74% cardiac glycosides, 1.25% flavonoids, 1.62% +polyphenols, 13.22% saccharides, 9.2% starch, 3.72% pectin, 4.21% resin, and 3.25% total +acids (mostly malic), 0.009% vitamin C. In the essential oil, one finds cyperene-1, cyperene- +2, patchoulene (CJ5H22O), mutacone (C15H22O), beta-seliene, beta-cyperone, cyperenone, +1,8-cineole, limonene, beta-pinene, p-cymol, camphene, isocyperol (C,5H240). The fatty +oil contains glycerol, linolenic, linoleic, oleic, myristic, and possibly stearic acid. The tuber +also contains a substance capable of dissolving several times its weight in lecithin (and other +items which cause urinary calculi). Molasses extracted from the tuber contains 41.7% d- +glucose, 9.3% d-fructose, and 4% nonreducing sugars.Salicylic acid may be extracted +from leaves and sprouted tubers. +Description — Perennial herb, forming colonies with long, slender, creeping rhizomes, +about 1 mm thick, with tuber-like thickenings at intervals, to 1 cm thick; culms slender, 8 +to 60 cm tall, simple, smooth, triangular, longer than leaves. Leaves 2 to 6 mm wide, +crowded in the basal few centimeters, usually spreading. Inflorescence of simple or slightly +compound umbels, 3 to 11 cm long, on 3 to 8 extremely unequal peduncles, each bearing +a cluster of 3 to 9 divaricate spikelets; spikelets 0.8 to 2.5 cm long, chestnut-brown to +chestnut-purple, acute 12- to 40-flowered; bracts usually 3 or 4, about as long as inflores­ +143 +cence; scales keeled, straight, ovate, closely appressed, nerveless except on keel, 2 to 3.5 +mm long, bluntish. Achene linear-oblong, 1.5 mm long, 3-angled, basally and apically +obtuse, granular, dull, olive-gray to brown, covered with a network of gray lines. Flowers +July to October or December; January to April in southern hemisphere. +Germplasm — Reported from the Euro-Siberian and North American Centers of Diver­ +sity, purple nutsedge, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, heat, high pH, insects, +laterite, low pH, salt, and weeds. (2n = 108.)®^ Several ecotypes are recognized. Types +are described from India with the following variation in glume color: (1) yellowish-white, +(2) light-red, (3) coppery-red with metallic luster, and (4) dark-red with blackish tinge. +Distribution — Native to Europe, Japan, and North America; widespread in all tropical, +subtropical, and warm temperate regions of the world.C. rotundas has been reported +from more countries, regions, and localities than any other weed in the world. +Ecology — Ranging from Boreal Moist through Tropical Desert to Wet Forest Life Zones, +purple nutsedge is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.0 to 46.1 dm (mean of 192 +cases = 16.9), annual temperature of 0.0 to 28.6°C (mean of 156 cases = 20.2), and pH +of 4.3 to 9.1 (mean of 75 cases = 6.4).^^ Continuous shading reduces tuber and bulb +formation by 10 to 57%. Tubers cannot survive more than 10 days at 45°C or 30 min at +60°C. Tubers held at 50°C more than 48 hr no longer germinate. Exposure to — 4°C for 8 +hr does not impair viability. Tubers, when dug, contain about 50% moisture. They cannot +survive when the level falls below 12 to 15%. Some tubers held in water for 200 days still +germinate satisfactorily when removed from water and placed under suitable growing con­ +ditions. Thrives in loamy or sandy soil anywhere; in many places up to 2,000 m altitude. +In wastelands, gardens, waysides, and in open spots; a troublesome weed in cultivated fields. +Requires a warm climate, no colder than the southern U.S., especially the Cotton Belt.^^® +According to Holm et al.^^^ it seems limited by cold temperatures, but other than this, it +grows in almost every soil type, elevation, humidity, soil moisture, and pH, but it cannot +stand soils with high salt content. It can survive the highest temperatures known in agriculture. +Also found on roadsides, in neglected areas, at the edges of woods, sometimes covering +banks of irrigation canals and streams. Nutsedge can take over entire streams or canals as +water becomes low. When water supply is low, it may become a problem in paddy rice in +which puddling of the soil cannot be done thoroughly. +Cultivation — Propagated by seed and tuber-bearing rhizomes. Because it grows so +profusely, it is considered more a weed than a plant to be cultivated. +Harvesting — Plants are harvested from native or naturalized stands. In Africa and Asia +it is harvested on a small scale for the oil, but in most areas it is allowed to grow wild.^^® +Flowering has been reported as early as 3 weeks in Israel and India, and 4 weeks in Trinidad, +with tuber formation occurring at 3 weeks in Hawaii, India, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, and the +southern U.S. In Israel, clipping every 2 weeks reduced tuber numbers by 60% and weight +by 85%.'^^ +Yields and economics — ''C yperus rotundas may produce up to 40,000 kilograms of +subterranean plant material per hectare.” In Mauritius, there may be 30 MT green tops and +tubers, withdrawing 815 kg/ha ammonium sulfate, 320 kg/ha muriate of potash, and 200 +kg of superphosphate. In Argentina, the weed can reduce sugarcane harvested by 75%, the +sugar yield by 65%. Allowed to remain in corn-fields for 10 days in Colombia, it reduces +yield by 10%, 30% in 30 days, suggesting a percentage loss for each day it is allowed to +remain. +Energy — The 40 tons of underground plant material, convertible to energy, is perhaps +most efficiently harvested by grubbing pigs. +Biotic factors — C yperus rotundas is an alternate host of Fusarium sp. and P uccinia +canaliculata, of abaca mosaic virus, and of the nematodes M eloidogyne sp. and R otylenchus +sim ilis. The nutgrass moth, B actra traculenta, which bores into the stems of C yperus +144 Handbook of Nuts +rotundas, showed promise for biological control in Hawaii in the early years after its +introduction from the Phillippines in 1925. As the populations of B actra increased, so also +did those of the insect Trichogram m a m inutum , which parasitizes the eggs of many moths +and butterflies. So many of the eggs of B actra were killed that biological control of nutgrass +was never attained. The jack bean, C anavalia ensiform is, greatly inhibits tuber formation. +In addition, C intractia m inor, P hyllachora cyperi, P uccinia cyperia, R hizoctonia solanP +and C intractia peribebu gen sis, H im atia stellifera, and P uccinia cyperi-tergetiformis^^^ are +reported. +145 +DETARIUM SENEGALENSE J. F. Gmel. (CAESALPINIACEAE) Tallow Tree +Syn.: D, heudelotianum Baill. +Uses — The only seeds and the pulp around them are used as food sources in Africa. +The pulp can be made into a sweetmeat. The oily kernels, little eaten by humans, are beaten +into cattle fodder by the Nupe. Ashes of the fruits are used to prepare a snuff. Seeds are +used for necklaces and girdles. An aromatic resin, exuding from the trunk, is used to fumigate +African huts and garments. The resin is used as a masticatory and to mend pottery. The +wood is used for planks and boat-building in Liberia and sold in England as African Ma­ +hogany. Roots are boiled on the Gold Coast to prepare a bird-lime. Seeds are burned to +repel mosquitoes.^^’^^^ +Folk medicine — Senegalese use the wood decoction for anemia and cachexia. In Sierra +Leone, young shoots are boiled as a febrifuge. Liberians use the bark decoction for placental +retention. In French Guinea, the bark is boiled to make a lotion for itch. Nigerians use the +seed for people inflicted with wounds by poisoned arrows. In Ghana, the fruit is used for +rubbing chronic backache or tuberculosis of the spine. Fruits are used for chest ailments in +West Africa. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the raw fruit is reported to contain 116 calories, 66.9% moisture, +1.9 g protein, 0.4 g fat, 29.6 g carbohydrates, 2.3 g fiber, 1.2 g ash, 27 mg calcium, 48 +mg phosphorus, 0.14 mg thiamine, 0.05 mg riboflavin, 0.6 mg niacin, and 1,290 mg ascorbic +acid. Dried fruit contains, per 100 g, 299 calories, 14.0% moisture, 3.4 g protein, 0.5 g +fat, 78.8 g carbohydrate, 7.1 g fiber, 3.3 g ash, 110 mg calcium, 0.01 mg thiamine, 0.03 +mg riboflavin, 3.8 mg niacin, and 3 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Detaric acid has been isolated from +146 Handbook of Nuts +the fruits.According to Hager’s Handbook,'*^ the fruits are among the highest in the +world for vitamin C. The figures above suggest that might be true, but the vitamin C is lost +in drying. Other sources hint that the seeds or fruits are poisonous. +Description — Tree to nearly 40 m tall, smaller in savanna, with large crown, girth 12 +m, bole 12 m; slash pale-salmon, bark bluish, exuding a slightly fragrant gum or gum-resin, +twigs rusty. Leaves pinnate, more or less gland-punctuate; leaflets 6 to 12, leathery and +rather glaucous or minutely pubescent below, with numerous parallel lateral nerves. Flowers +in fragrant creamy axillary panicles, shorter than leaves, flowers small, profuse, sepals 4, +white, petals absent, stamens 10, buds glabrous or nearly so, ca. 4 mm long, sepals pubescent +within. Fruits round, succulent, like flattened mango, >6 cm in diameter, skin smooth, +crustaceous, with intermediate fibrous layer. Flowers May to August; fruits December to +January; Ghana. +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, tallow tree, or cvs thereof, +is reported to tolerate drought and savanna. The savanna form (senegalense) is smaller than +the closed forest form (heudelotianum). Seeds of the latter are more likely to be poisonous. +Distribution — Throughout west Tropical Africa. +Ecology — A tree of the Closed Forest and Fringing Forests of moister savannas.^' +Cultivation — Apparently cultivated only to a limited extent in Senegal. +Harvesting — No data available. +Yieds and economics — No data available. +Energy — The wood bums slowly and is favored as a fuel because of the agreeable +odor.^ +Biotic factors — The heartwood is probably resistant to borers and termites.^* +147 +ELAEIS GUINEENSIS Jacq. (ARECACEAE [PALMAE]) African Oil Palm +Syn.: Elaeis melanococca J. Gaertn. +Uses — Two kinds of oil are obtained from this palm, palm oil and palm kernel oil. Palm +oil is extracted from the fleshy mesocarp of the fruit, which contains 45 to 55% oil which +varies from light-yellow to orange-red in color, and melts from 25° to 50°C. For edible fat +manufacture, the oil is bleached. Palm oil contains saturated palmitic acid, oleic acid, and +linoleic acid, giving it a higher unsaturated acid content than palm kernel or coconut oils. +Palm oil is used for manufacture of soaps and candles, and more recently, in manufacture +of margarine and cooking fats. Palm oil is used extensively in the tin plate industry, protecting +cleaned iron surfaces before the tin is applied. Oil is also used as lubricant in the textile +and rubber industries. Palm kernel oil is extracted from the kernel of endosperm, and contains +about 50% oil. Similar to coconut oil, with a high content of saturated acids, mainly lauric, +it is solid at normal temperatures in temperate area, and is nearly colorless, varying from +white to slightly yellow. This nondrying oil is used in edible fats, in making ice cream and +mayonnaise, in baked goods and confectioneries, and in the manufacture of soaps and +detergents. Press-cake, after extraction of oil from the kernels, is used as livestock feed, +and contains 5 to 8% oil. Palm wine is made from the sap obtained by tapping the male +inflorescence. The sap contains about 4.3 g/100 m€ sucrose and 3.4 g/100 m€ glucose. The +sap ferments quickly and is an important source of Vitamin B complex in the diet of people +of West Africa. A mean annual yield for 150 palms is 4,000 €/ha, double in value to the +oil and kernels from the same number of palms. The central shoot (or cabbage) is edible. +148 Handbook of Nuts +Leaves used for thatching; petioles and rachices for fencing and for protecting the tops of +mud walls. Refuse after stripping the bunches is used for mulching and manuring; ash +sometimes used in soap-making. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the oil is used as a liniment for indolent +tumors. Reported to be anodyne, antidotal, aphrodisiac, diuretic, and vulnerary, oil palm +is a folk remedy for cancer, headaches, and rheumatism. +Chemistry — As the oil is rich in carotene, it can be used in place of cod liver oil for +correcting Vitamin A deficiency. Per 100 g, the fruit is reported to contain 540 calories, +26.2 g H2O, 1.9 g protein, 58.4 g fat, 12.5 g total carbohydrate, 3.2 g fiber, 1.0 g ash, 82 +mg Ca, 47 mg P, 4.5 mg Fe, 42,420 meg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.20 mg thiamine, 0.10 +mg riboflavin, 1.4 mg niacin, and 12 mg ascorbic acid. The oil contains, per 100 g, 878 +calories, 0.5% H2O, 0.0% protein, 99.1% fat, 0.4 g total carbohydrate, 7 mg Ca, 8 mg P, +5.5 mg Fe, 27,280 meg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.03 mg riboflavin, and a trace of thia­ +mine.The + fatty composition of the oil is 0.5 to 5.9% myristic, 32.3 to 47.0 palmitic, 1.0 +to 8.5 stearic, 39.8 to 52.4 oleic, and 2.0 to 11.3 linoleic. The component glycerides are +oleodipalmitins (45%), palmitodioleins (30%), oleopalmitostearins (10%), linoleodioleins +(6 to 8%), and fully saturated glycerides, tripalmitin and diapalmitostearin (6 to 8%). +Micou^“ notes that vitamin E is a by-product of the process which converts palm oil into +a diesel-oil substitute. +Description — Tall palm, 8.3 to 20 m tall, erect, heavy, trunks ringed; monoecious, +male and female flowers in separate clusters, but on same tree; trunk to 20 m tall, usually +less, 30 cm in diameter. Leaf bases adhere; petioles 1.3 to 2.3 m long, 12.5 to 20 cm wide, +saw-toothed, broadened at base, fibrous, green; blade pinnate, 3.3 to 5 m long, with 100 +to 150 pairs of leaflets; leaflets 60 to 120 cm long, 3.5 to cm broad; central nerve very +strong, especially at base, green on both surfaces. Flower stalks from lower leaf axils, 10 +to 30 cm long and broad; male flowers on short furry branches 10 to 15 cm long, set close +to trunk on short pedicels; female flowers and consequently fruits in large clusters of 200 +to 300, close to trunk on short heavy pedicles. Fruits plum-like ovoid-oblong to 3.5 cm +long and about 2 cm wide, black when ripe, red at base, with thick ivory-white flesh and +small cavity in center; nuts encased in a fibrous covering which contains the oil. About 5 +female inflorescences are produced per year; each inflorescence weighing about 8 kg, the +fruits weighing about 3.5 g each. +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, the African oil palm or +CVS thereof is reported to tolerate high pH, laterite, low pH, savanna, virus, and water­ +logging.^^ Ehsanullah^^ reported on oil palm cultivars. African Oil Palm is monoecious and +cross-pollinated, and individual palms are very heterozygous. Three varieties are distin­ +guished: those with orange nuts which have the finest oil but small kernels; red or black +nut varieties which have less oil, but larger kernels. Sometimes oil palms are classified +according to the fruit structure: Dura, with shell or endocarp 2 to 8 mm thick, about 25 to +55% of weight of fruit; medium mesocarp of 35 to 55% by weight, but up to 65% in the +Deli Palms; kernels large, 7 to 20% of weight of fruit; the most important type in West +Africa; the Macrocarya form with shells 6 to 8 mm thick forms a large proportion of the +crop in western Nigeria and Sierra Leone. Tenera, with thin shells, 0.5 to 3 mm thick, 1 +to 32% of weight of fruit; medium to high mesocarp 60 to 95% of weight of fruit; kernels +3 to 15% of fruit; larger number of bunches than Dura, but lower mean bunch weight and +lower fruit-to-bunch ratio. Pisifera, shell-less, with small kernels in fertile fruits, fruits often +rotting prematurely; fruit-to-bunch ratio low. Infertile palms show strong vegetative growth, +but of little commercial value; however it has now become of greatest importance in breeding +commercial palms. Deli Palm (Dura type), originated in Sumatra and Malaya, gives high +yields in the Far East, but not so good in West Africa. Dumpy Oil Palm, discovered in +Malaya among Deli Palms, is low-growing and thick-stemmed. Breeding and selection of +149 +oil palms have been aimed at production of maximum quantity of palm oil and kernels per +hectare, and resistance to disease. Recently, much attention has been directed at cross­ +breeding with E. oleifera for short-trunk hybrids, thus making harvesting easier. Zeven^"^^ +elucidates the center of diversity, and discusses the interactions of some important oil palm +genes. +Distribution — The center of origin of the oil palm is in the tropical rain forest region +of West Africa in a region about 200 to 300 km wide along the coastal belt from Liberia +to Angola. The palm has spread from 16°N latitude in Senegal to 15°S in Angola and +eastwards to the Indian Ocean, Zanzibar, and Malagasy. Now introduced and cultivated +throughout the tropics between 16°N and S latitudes. Sometimes grown as an ornamental, +as in southern Florida. +Ecology — Occurs wild in riverine forests or in fresh-water swamps. It cannot thrive in +primeval forests and does not regenerate in high secondary forests. Requires adequate light +and soil moisture, can tolerate temporary flooding or a fluctuating water table, as might be +found along rivers. It is slightly hardier than coconut. Ranging ecologically from savanna +to rain forest, it is native to areas with 1,780 to 2,280 mm rainfall per year. Best developed +on lowlands, with 2 to 4 month dry period. Mean maximum temperatures of 30 to 32°C +and mean minimum of 21 to 24°C provides suitable range. Seedling growth arrested below +15°C. Grows and thrives on a wide range of tropical soils, provided they have adequate +water. Waterlogged, highly lateritic, extremely sandy, stony or peaty soils should be avoided. +Coastal marine alluvial clays, soils of volcanic origin, acid sands, and other coastal alluviums +are used. Soils with pH of 4 to 6 are most often used. Ranging from Subtropical Dry (without +frost) through Tropical Dry to West Forest Life Zones, oil palm is reported to tolerate annual +precipitation of 6.4 to 42.6 dm (mean of 27 cases = 22.7), annual temperature of 18.7 to +27.4°C (mean of 27 cases = 24.8), and pH of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 22 cases = 5.7).®^ +Cultivation — In wild areas of West Africa the forest is often cleared to let 75 to 150 +palms stand per hectare; this yields about 2.5 MT of bunches per hectare per year. Normally, +oil palms are propagated by seed. Seed germination and seedling establishment are difficult. +A temperature of 35°C stimulates germination in thin shelled cvs. Thick-walled cvs require +higher temperatures. Seedlings are outplanted at about 18 months. In some places, seeds +are harvested from the wild, but plantation culture is proving much more rewarding. In a +plantation, trees are spaced 9 x 9 m; a 410-ha plantation would have about 50,000 trees, +each averaging 5 bunches of fruit, each averaging 1 kg oil to yield a total of 250,000 kg +011 for the 410 ha. Vegetative propagation is not feasible, as the tree has only one growing +point. Because oil palm is monoecious, cross-pollination is general and the value of parent +plants is determined by the performance of the progeny produced in such crosses. Bunch- +yield and oil and kernel content of the bunches are used as criteria for selecting individual +palms for breeding. Controlled pollination must be maintained when breeding from selected +plants. Seed to be used for propagation should be harvested ripe. Best germination results +by placing seeds about 0.6 cm deep in sand flats and covering them with sawdust. Flats are +kept fully exposed to sun and kept moist. In warm climates, 50% of seed will germinate in +8 weeks; in other areas it may take from 64 to 146 days. Sometimes the hard shell is ground +down, or seeds are soaked in hot water for 2 weeks, or both, before planting. Plants grow +slowly at first, being 6 to 8 years old before the pinnate leaves become normal size. When +planting seedlings out in fields or forest, holes are dug, and area about 1 m around them +cleared. Young plants should be transplanted at the beginning of rainy season. In areas +where there is no distinct dry season, as in Malaya, planting out may be done the year +round, but is usually done during months with the highest rainfall. Seedlings or young plants, +12 to 18 months old, should be moved with a substantial ball of earth. Ammonium sulfate +and sulfate or muriate of potash at a rate of 227 g per palm should be applied in a ring +about the plant at time of planting. Where magnesium may be deficient in the soil, 227 g +150 Handbook of Nuts +Epsom salts or kieserite should be applied also. In many areas oil palms are intercropped +with food plants, as maize, yams, bananas, cassava, or cocoyams. In Africa, intercropping +for up to 3 years has helped to produce early palm yields. Cover-crops are often planted, +as mixtures of C alopogonium m ucunoides, C entrosem a pu bescen s, and P ueraria ph aseo- +loides, planted in proportion of 2:2:1 with seed rate of 5.5 kg/ha. Natural covers and planted +cover crops can be controlled by slashing. Nitrogen dressings are important in early years. +Chlorosis often occurs in nursery beds in the first few years after planting out. Adequate +manuring should be applied in these early years. When nitrogen fertilizers, as sulfate of +ammonium, are used, 0.22 kg per palm in the planting year and 0.45 kg per palm per year +until age 4, should be sufficient. Potassium, magnesium, and trace elements requirements +should be determined by soil test and the proper fertilizer applied, according to the region, +soil type, and degree of deficiency. +Harvesting — First fruit bunches ripen in 3 to 4 years after planting in the field, but +these may be small and of poor quality. Often these are eliminated by removal of the early +female inflorescences. Bunches ripen 5 to 6 months after pollination. Bunches should be +harvested at the correct degree of ripeness, as under-ripe fruits have low oil concentration +and over-ripe fruits have high fatty acid content. Harvesting is usually done once a week. +In Africa, bunches of semi-wild trees are harvested with a cutlass, and tall palms are climbed +by means of ladders and ropes. For the first few years of harvesting, bunches are cut with +a steel chisel with a wooden handle about 90 cm long, allowing the peduncles to be cut +without injuring the subtending leaf. Usually thereafter, an axe is used, or a curved knife +attached to a bamboo pole. A man can harvest 100 to 150 bunches per day. Bunches are +carried to transport centers and from there to the mill for oil extraction. +Yields and economics — According to the Wealth of India, the oil yield of oil palm is +higher than that of any other oilseed crop, producing 2.5 MT oil per ha per year, with 5 +MT recorded. Yields of semi-wild palms vary widely, usually ranging from 1.2 to 5 MT +of bunches per hectare per year. One MT of bunches yields about 80 kg oil by local soft +oil extraction, or 180 kg by hydraulic handpress. Estate yields in Africa vary from 7.5 to +15 MT bunches per hectare per year; in Sumatra and Malaya, 15 to 25 MT, with some +fields producing 30 to 38 MT. Estate palm oil extraction yield rates vary accordingly: D ura, +15 to 16% oil per bunch; D eli D u ra, 16 to 18% Tenera, 20 to 22%. Kernel extraction yields +vary from 3.5 to 5% or more. The U.S. imported nearly 90 million kg in 1966, more than +half of it as kernel oil. Recently, palm oil commanded $.31/kg, indicating potential yields +of about $1400/ha. In 1968 world producing countries exported about 544,000 long tons of +oil and 420,000 long tons of kernels. The main producing countries, in order of production, +are Nigeria, Congo, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Indonesia, and Malaysia. The U.K. is the largest +importer of oil palm products, importing about 180,000 MT of palm oil and 243,000 MT +of palm kernels annually. Japan, and Eastern European and Middle East countries also import +considerable quantities of palm oil and kernels. Some palm kernel oil extraction is now +being done in the palm oil producing countries. Previously, most of the kernels had been +exported, and the oil extracted in the importing countries. +Energy — Bunch yields may attain 22,000 kg/ha; of which only about 10% is oil, +indicating oil yields of only 2,200 kg/ha. Higher yields are attainable. Corley^ suggests +plantation yields of 2 to 6 MT/ha mesocarp oil, experimentally up to 8.5 MT/ha. Hodge, +citing oil yields of 2,790 kg/ha, suggests that this is the most efficient oil-making plant +species. The seasonal maximum total biomass reported for oil palm is 220 MT wet weight. +When replanting occurs, over 40 MT/ha DM (dry matter) of palm trunks are available +(conceivably for energy production) after the 70% moisture from the wet material has been +expelled.^ Although annual productivity may approach 37 MT DM/ha, mean productivity +during the dry season is 10 g/mVday Averaged over the year, oil palm in Malaysia showed +a growth rate of 8 g/m^/day for an annual phytomass production of 29.4 MT/ha.Fresh +151 +fruit bunch yields have been increased elsewhere by 2 MT/ha intercropping with appropriate +legumes. Estate yields in Africa are 7 to 15 MT bunches per year, with oil yields of 800 +to 1800 kg/ha, and residues of yields of ca. 6 to 13 MT. It is probable that older leaves, +leaf stalks, etc., could be harvested with biomass yield of 1 to 5 MT/ha. Based on energetic +equivalents of total biomass produced, up to 60 barrels of oil per hectare could be obtained +from this species. An energy evaluation of all the wastes from the palm oil fruit was made, +and it revealed that this can satisfy ca. 17% of Malaysia’s energy requirements. Palm oil +could satisfy 20% more.^^^ An alcoholic wine can be made from the sap of the male spikes, +150 trees yielding about 4,000 ( of palm wine per hectare, per year. Worthy of energetic +interest is the suggestion of Gaydou et al.‘®^ that the oil palm can yield twice as much +energetically as sugarcane, at least based on the Malagasy calculations. +Biotic factors — Many fungi attack oil palms, but the most serious ones are the following: +B last {P ythium splendens, followed by R hizoctonia lam ellifera), Freckle (C ercospora elaei- +dis), Anthracnose (B otryodiplodia palm arum , M elanconium elaeidis, G lom erella cingulata). +Seedling blight {C urvularia eragrostidis). Yellow patch and Vascular wilt (Fusarium ox- +ysporum ), Basal rot of trunk {C eratocystis pa ra d o x a , imp. stage of T hielaviopsis p ara d o x d ), +other trunk rots (G anoderm a spp., A rm illaria m ellea)\ Crown disease, rotting of fruit (M ar- +asm ius palm ivoru s). Spear rot or bud rot is caused by the bacterium E rw inia sp., which has +devastated entire areas in S. Congo. The A griculture H andbook 165 reports the leaf spot +(A chorella attaleae) and the Black Mildew (M eliola m elan ococcae, M . ela eis)^ The following +nematodes have been isolated from oil palms: A phelenchus avenae, H eterodera m arioni, +H elicotylenchus pseu dorobu stu s, H . m icrocephalus cocophilus (serious in Venezuela), Scu- +tellonem a clathrocau datus. The major pests of oil palm in various parts of the world are +the following: Palm weevils {Rhynchophorus ph oen icis, R. palm arum , R. ferru gin eu s, R. +schach). Rhinoceros beetles {O rcytes rhinoceros, O. boas, O. m onoceros, O . ow arien sis). +Weevils (Strategus aloeus, T em noschoita qu adripustulata), Leaf-miners {C oelaenom enodera +elaeidis, H ispolepsis elaeidis, Alurunus hum eralis), Slug caterpillar (P arasa viridissim a). +Nettle caterpillar {Setoria nitens), Bagworms (C rem astoph ysch epén du la, M ahesena corbetti. +M elisa plan a). Rodents may cause damage to seedlings and fruiting palms; some birds also +cause damage in jungle areas. +152 Handbook of Nuts +ELAEIS OLEIEERA (HBK) Cortes (ARECACEAE) — American Oil Palm, Corozo +Syn. Corozo oleifera (HBK) Bailey; Elaeis melanococca Gaertn., emend. Bailey; +Alfonsia oleifera HBK +Uses — Plants are native and cultivated to a limited extent in South America; the oil is +used for soap-making, food, and lamp fuel. Its main value lies in its slow-growing, pro­ +cumbent trunk and high percent of parthenocarpic fruits, and for its hybridizing potential +with E laeis g u i n e e n s i s American oil palm is better for margarine-making than the African +oil palm, because the former has a low level of free fatty acids and a high melting point. +Folk medicine — Reported to be tonic, corozo is a folk remedy for dandruff and other +scalp ailments, inflammation, and stomach problems. +Chemistry — The pericarp yields 29 to 50%, the kernel 29 to 45% oil. The pericarp oil +contains 48.3% saturated fatty acids (1.0% C14, 32.6% palmitic, 4.7% Cjg), 47.5% oleic, +and 12.0% linoleic, with traces of arachidic acid (0.5%), 0.9% hexadecenoic acid, and 0.8% +linolenic acid.‘^^ +Description — Small palm; trunk procumbent, although an erect habit may be maintained +for about 15 years; erect portion 1.6 to 3 m tall, trunks lying on soil up to 8.3 m long; roots +formed along entire length of procumbent portion of trunk. Leaves 30 to 37 per plant; leaflets +about 6.3 cm broad, all lying in one plane, no basal swellings; spines on petioles short and +thick. Male inflorescence with 100 to 200 spikelets 5 to 15 cm long, pressed together until +they burst through the spathe just before anthesis, rudimentary gynoecium with 3 marked +stigmatic ridges; female inflorescence with spathe persisting after being ruptured by the +developing bunch; spikelets ending in a short prong. Flowers numerous, sunk in the body +of the spikelet; bunch of fruits surrounded by the fibers of the spathe, with no long spines; +bunches round and wide at their center, pointed at top, giving a distinctly conical shape, +rarely weighing more than 22.5 kg, usually much smaller, containing a large number of +small fruits. Fruits ripen from pale yellow to bright red (a high proportion, up to 90%, +parthenocarpic or abortive); perianth persistent as fruit ripens and becomes detached from +the bunch; fruits 2.5 to 3.0 cm long, weighing as little as 2 to 3.5 g each with average +weights from 8.5 to 12.6 g; nuts with 2 kernels fairly frequent, with 3 occasional. +Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, corozo, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate acid soils, drought, savanna, some salt-water, and waterlog­ +ging.^^ “ Tissue culture has increased interest in the hybrids of E. guineensis x E. oleifera: +the latter produces a high quality unsaturated oil, although the yield of oil is low. The oil +yield of the F, hybrid is intermediate between both parental species; in back crosses to E. +guineensis, however, occasional palms are found that combine good yield (from E. gu i­ +neensis) with improved oil quality and reduced height increment (from E. oleifera): such +palms can now be multiplied clonally.’’*^^ There are some variations in habit of growth and +leaf-formation. This species easily hybridizes with the p isifera form of E. gunieensis, the +African Oil Palm, and the fruits are relatively thin-shelled, but have no fiber +(2n = 32.) +Distribution — Native to Central and South America (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, +Surinam, Panama, and Costa Rica.).^^* +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Thom to Moist +Forest Life Zones, corozo is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 15.2 (to 40) +dm (mean of 7 cases = 11.9), annual temperature of 21.0 to 27.8°C (mean of 7 cases = +24.4), and pH of (4 to) 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 5 cases = 6.5).®^ Actually, I have observed +oil palm in much wetter situations than these data indicate. At the Panama-Costa Rica border, +where the rainfall is closer to 40 dm, there are abundant strands of corozo, some even said +to tolerate brackish water. In Latin America plants grow procumbent in swampy areas, and +more upright in drier areas. Best development is in lowland ravines with rainfall between +153 +1,700 and 2,200 mm annually. Mean maximum temperatures of 30 to 32°C and mean +minimum temperatures of 21 to 24°C are suitable. Grows and thrives on a wide range of +tropical soils, provided they have adequate water; soils with pH 4 to 6 are most often used +for cultivation. +Cultivation — When this palm is cultivated, seeds are planted in seedbeds and the +seedlings transplanted into the field when about 12 to 18 months old. Fruits are selected +from special mother plants, often after pollination with pollen of a selected male palm. Seeds +may be germinated in a germinator and the seedlings grown in a pre-nursery, and later in +a nursery. Transplants are planted where the bush has been checked. In the nurseries, plants +receive water and fertilizer and are shaded to protect them from sunburn. After being planted +out, they must receive more fertilizer. Ammonium sulfate and sulfate or muriate of potash +at a rate of 227 g per palm should be applied in a ring about the plant at time of planting. +Where magnesium may be deficient in the soil, 227 g Epsom salts or kieserite should be +applied also. Plants grow slowly at first, being about 7 years old before the typical pinnate +leaves form normal size. In many areas, oil palms are intercropped with vegetable and other +food crops, as maize, yams, bananas, cassava, or cocoyams. Intercropping for 3 years or +so has helped to produce early palm yields. Cover crops are often planted, as mixtures of +C alopogonium m ucunoides, C entrosem a pu bescen s, and P ueraria ph aseoloides, planted in +proportion of 2:2:1 with seed rates of 5.5 kg/ha. Natural covers and planted cover crops can +be controlled by slashing. Adequate manure should be applied during the early years to +provide nitrogen. When nitrogen fertilizers (e.g., sulfate or ammonium) are used, 0.22 kg +per palm in the planting years and 0.45 kg per palm per year until age 4, should be sufficient. +Potassium, magnesium, and trace elements requirements should be determined by soil test +and the proper fertilizer applied, according to the region, soil type, and degree of defi­ +ciency. +Harvesting — Fruits mature from January to June, usually borne only about 1.5 m above +the ground, in an averge 5 clusters. Fruits begin to be formed about 4 years after planting +in the field. Often the first female inflorescences are cut off to allow better plant development. +Bunches ripen about 6 months after pollination. Ripe fruits are harvested about once a week. +Bunches are cut with machete or sharp knife, and carried to transport centers, from which +they go to the mill for oil extraction. +Yields and economics — Bunches rarely weigh more than 22.5 kg, and generally average +8.5 to 12.67 g each; in Colombia, fruits weigh as little as 2.0 to 3.5 g. Fruit-to-bunch ratio +varies from 32 to 44%.^^^ Oil yield of E. oleifera is much lower than that of E. guineensis\^^^ +a tree can yield annually ca.25 kg fruit (equalling ca. 12,850 individual fruits).Hadcock^^® +describes a simple oil palm mill (capacity 250 kg bunches per hr) that would work on either +species of oil palm. Bunches are sterilized for 1 hr before stripping. After stripping, the +fruit is reheated for 1 hr before it is digested in a rapid digester operated by a 5 h.p engine. +Oil is extracted with a hydraulic press. The oil is separated from the crude material by means +of a continuous settling clarifier fitted with a heat exchanger to dry the oil. The efficiency +of oil recovery is only 75 to 86%. The mill, including the building cost, is U.S. $34,000.^^® +Energy — See African oil palm, which has a somewhat higher energy potential. +Biotic factors — Both bee- and wind-pollinated; but up to 90% of fruits may be par- +thenocarpic. Bees are common around male inflorescence and may act as pollinating agents. +Hermaphroditic inflorescence plants are found in America and in planted trees in the Congo. +Most of the pests and diseases of the African oil palm are associated with this palm also, +especially where it has been planted with E. guineensis +154 +Handbook of Nuts +ELEOCHARIS DULCIS (Burnì.f.) Trin. ex Henschel (CYPERACEAE) — Watemut, Chinese +Water chestnut, MA TAI, MA HAI +Syn.: Andropogon dulce Burnì, f., Scirpusplantagineus Tetz., Scirpusplantaginoides +Rottb., Scirpus tuberosus Roxb., Eleocharis plantaginea (Retz.) Roem. and +Schut., Eleocharis tuberosa Schultes +Uses — Edible tubers or corms are used as a vegetable in many East Indian and Chinese +dishes. Sliced, they are esteemed in Chinese soups for their crisp texture and delicious flavor. +Sliced water chestnuts are one of the ingredients of chop suey in the U.S. They are rec­ +ommended, as well, in American salads and soups. Shredded water chestnuts often appear +in meat and fish dishes. Raw corms are eaten out of hand in lieu of fresh fruit in China. +East Indians cook the tubers, remove the rind, crush the meat with a hammer, sun dry, and +fry in coconut oil as a delicacy. +Folk medicine — In China,^ the plant is used for abdominal pain, amenorrhea, anemia, +bruises, clots, gas, hernia, inflammation, liver, malnutrition, pinkeye, and swellings. +Porterfield^^® notes that Chinese give quantities to children who have ingested coins, in the +belief that the water chestnuts will decompose the metal. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the root (ZMB) contains 360 to 364 calories, 7.4 to 8.5 g +protein, 0.7 to 1.6 g fat, 84.8 to 87.6 g total carbohydrate, 3.2 to 3.9 g fiber, 5.1 to 6.0 g +ash, 18.4 to 26.5 mg Ca, 299 to 407 mg P, 2.8 to 3.7 mg Fe, 53 to 92 mg Na, 2,304 to +2,545 mg K, 0 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.16 to 0.65 mg thiamine, 0.11 to 0.92 mg +riboflavin, 4.6 to 5.3 mg niacin, and 18 to 32 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Another analysis suggested +77% carbohydrate (half sugar, half starch) and 8% albuminoids.^ According to Porterfield,^^® +the water chestnut contains ca.77% carbohydrates. The cane-sugar content, in water-free +samples, averages about 27.5%, while protein is rather low. The starch content of the fresh +corm is ca. 7 to 8%. +155 +Description — Perennial aquatic or paludal rush-like herb, with elongate rhizomes, +terminated by a tuber; culms terete, erect, 40 to 80 cm tall, 2.5 mm thick, glaucous-green, +smooth, septate-nodose within, arising from short, dark-brown, basal tuber or corm 5 cm +or less in diameter. Sheaths 5 to 20 cm long, frequently partially reddish. Spikelets cylin­ +drical, 4 cm long, 3 to 4 mm thick, scales broadly elliptic, 5 to 6 mm long. Achenes obovate- +orbicular, 2 mm long, lustrous, tawny, smooth, bristles with short spines at tip, these shorter +toward apex, style-base short-deltoid with strongly depressed inconspicuous basal disc. +Flowers summer; fruits July to October. +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, water chestnut, or +CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate waterlogging.*^ Two cvs recognized in China are ‘Ma +Tai’, or common water-chestnut, usually black and about 2.5 cm in diameter: ‘Mandarin’ +water chestnut, dark reddish-brown, with slight cover of light-brown skin, and about 3.2 +cm in diameter. Shell is a tough hard skin, and the kernel resembles a potato in consistency, +color, and composition.^^* +Distribution — Native to the East Indies, China and Japan, Fiji, Philippines, India, and +New Caledonia, Chinese water chestnuts are cultivated throughout the Far East, especially +in Taiwan, Malaysia, and Ryukyu Islands.^^* Zeven and Zhukovsky^^® mention it for West +Africa, as well. Rosengarten^*^ suggests its cultivation in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal States +as far north as Virginia. They are suggested also for Puerto Rico and Hawaii. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest +Life Zones, water chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8.7 to 24.1 dm +(mean of 3 cases = 16.7), annual temperature of 18.7 to 26.6°C (mean of 3 cases = +22.9°C), and pH of 5.3 to 5.5 (mean of 2 cases = 5.4).*^ Hardy only to Zone 9*^^ or perhaps +to Zone 7,^"^^ tolerating average annual minimum temperatures of 5 to 10°F (to 15 to 12°C), +Chinese water chestnuts grow in shallow water, and are adapted for planting along edges +of ponds, in boggy places, or in marshes, remaining green during the fall and winter. In +colder areas, plants are grown in pots, tubs, or pools of water.^^* +Cultivation — Planting is done annually in June or July. Old corms are first planted in +wet mud and, when sprouted, are planted usually about 15 cm deep in fields of mud covered +with some, but not too much, water. Also propagated by offsets from the corms, it spreads +by means of horizontal rhizomes. It grows practically throughout the year, at least until +ready to replant for the next season. Corms should be planted in rich, fertile soil, one to +each 15-cm pot, when grown for local or limited culture. Pots should be submerged so that +the soil surface is covered with 15 cm of water. Potted plants may be put out in pools when +weather is warm and settled, but should be brought in before frost.^^* DeRigo and Winters^^ +recommend 224 kg N (ammonium sulfate), 112 kg P2O5 (superphosphate), and 168 kg K2O +(muriate of potash), as the best fertilizer combination for water chestnut growers with soils +similar to those in the Savannah station of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. +Harvesting — Corms, mature and ready for use in about 6 months, are harvested as +needed. For commerical purposes, toward the end of the season all the tubers in a clump +may be harvested. After the tops are removed, tubers may be plowed up and hand picked. +At harvest time, the corms, 3 to 5 cm in diameter, may be produced on the rhizomes to a +depth of 25 cm. Corms are cleaned, dried, and shipped to markets.^^* +Yields and economics — Plants are very prolific, and a plant may yield 10 to 12 kg of +chestnuts per season. Yields as high as 40 MT/ha are reported from China, higher than the +35 MT/ha reported by DeRigo and Winters.The 10 MT/ha reported in The Wealth of +India'^^ may be more realistic. Rosengarten^*^ more optimistically suggests 25 to 50 tons per +hectare. They are used extensively as food in the East Indies, China, and Japan. Canned +Chinese water chestnuts are imported from Hong Kong in large quantities into Europe, Great +Britain, and the U.S.^^* +Energy — Accepting tuber yields of 40 MT/ha, the tubers being ca. 75% water, there +156 Handbook of Nuts +is a DM yield of 10 MT/ha. This could be used as a food or energy source. Tops, normally +discarded, would probably represent even less DM, also available for energy production. +Biotic factors — Attacked by several fungi: Cladosporium herbarum, Claviceps nigricans, +Curvularia lunata, C. maculans, Cylindrosporium eleocharidis, Dermatosorus eleocharidis, +Entyloma eleochardis, E. parvum, Epicoccum nigrum, Mucor circinelloides, Pestalotia +scripina, Physoderma heleocharidis, Puccinia eleocharidis, P. liberta, Uredo incomposita, +Uromyces eleocharidis, Dicaeoma eleocharidis. The following nematodes have been isolated +from Chinese water chestnuts; Dolichodorus heterocephalus, Hoplolaimus coronatus, and +Paratylenchus sarissus +157 +FAGUS GRANDIFOLIA Ehrh. (FAGACEAE) — American Beech +S yn .: Fagus americana S w eet, Fagus ferruginea A lt., Fagus atropurpuea Sudw, +U ses — Nuts eaten raw, dried, or cooked; they usually have a sweet taste. Sometimes +roasted and ground for use as a coffee substitute.Beech buds may be eaten in the spring^®^ +and young leaves cooked as greens in the spring. The inner bark is dried and pulverized for +bread flour in times of need and used as emergency food. Beechnuts are used to make cakes +and pies.^^® Nuts are a fattening feed for hogs and poultry,and also provide food for +wildlife. Trees make excellent ornamentals and provide valuable timber. The wood is heavy, +straight-grained, of close texture, hard, but not durable, and hence it is not used as building +timber, though extensively used for ordinary lumber ware, furniture, and cooperage stock. +Also used for boxes, clothes-pins, crates, cross-ties, flooring, food containers, fuel, general +millwork, handles, laundry appliances, pulpwood, spools, toys, veneer, and woodenware. +After steaming, the wood is easy to bend and is valuable for the curved parts of chairs. +Wood tar (source of creosote) is obtained through destructive distillation of the wood.^^"^ +Early settlers used the wood mainly for fuel wood. Makes excellent charcoal that was used +by blacksmiths and in furnaces for smelting iron.^^^ +F olk m ed icin e — Reported to be antidote and poison, American beech is a folk remedy +for bums, frostbite, rash, and scald,^^ UphoP^"^ reports it to be antiseptic, antipyretic, a +stimulating expectorant, used for chronic bronchitis, pulmonary tuberculosis, and vomiting +158 Handbook of Nuts +seasickness. Guiaicol (from beech wood creosote) is expectorant and intestinal antiseptic. +Cherokee Indians chewed the inner bark as a worm treatment. Potawatomi Indians used a +decoction of leaves on frostbitten extremities and made a leaf decoction compound for +bums.^*^ Rappahannock Indians applied it to poison ivy rash three times daily in the form +of a wash made by steeping a handful of beech bark, from the north side of the tree, in a +pint of water with a little salt.^^® +Chemistry — Per 100 gm, the seed is reported to contain 608 calories, 20.8 g protein, +53.5 fat, 21.7 g total carbohydrate, 4.0 g fiber, and 4.0 g ash.^^ Rosengarten^^^ reports +beech nuts contain 19.4% protein, 20.3% carbohydrates, and 5,667 calories per kg. Another +source lists beech nuts as containing (per 100 g) 568 calories, 19.4 g protein, 50.0 g fat, +20.3 g carbohydrate, and 6.6% water.Smith^*® reports 6.6% water, 21.8% protein, 49.9% +fat, 18.0% carbohydrates, 3.7% ash, and 6,028 calories per kg. The wood is a source of +methyl alcohol and acetic acid. Guaiacol is derived from beech wood creosote by fractional +distillation. +Toxicity — Occasionally nuts cause poisoning in man and domestic animals. There have +been reports that indicate gastrointestinal distress, probably caused by a saponin glycoside.*®"^ +Description — Deciduous tree, to 30 (to 40) m tall and 1 m in diameter, round-topped; +bark smooth, gray; winter-buds long, lanceolate, acute; twigs slender, often slightly zigzag. +Leaves alternate, short-petioled, simple, ovate-oblong, obovate or elliptical, 6.5 to 12.5 cm +long, sharply serrate to denticulate, thin, papery, broadly acute to subcordate at base, straight- +veined, densely silky when young, becoming glabrous above and dark bluish-green and +usually silky-pubescent beneath, turning yellow in fall. Flowers monoecious, appearing with +leaves; staminate flowers in drooping heads, subtended by deciduous bracts, with small +calyx, deeply 4 to 8 cleft and 8 to 16 stamens; pistillate flowers in 2 to 4-flowered spikes, +usually in pairs at end of short peduncle, subtended and largely concealed by numerous +subulate bracts, calyx adnate to ovary with 6 acuminate lobes. Burs prickly, about 2 to 2.5 +cm in diameter, dehiscing into 4 valves, partially opening upon maturity; nuts triangular, +up to 2 cm long, 2 or 3 in each bur; seed-coat brown, removed from kernel before eating. +Root-suckering causes thickets around old trees. Flowers spring; fruits fall.^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, American beech, +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, high pH, limestone, low pH, shade, slope, weeds, +and waterlogging.^^ Three natural varieties can be distinguished: var. grandifolia — prickles +of bur 4 to 10 mm long, erect, spreading or recurved, with leaves usually sharply serrate, +grows in rich upland soils, from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to Minnesota, south to +Virginia and Kentucky, and in mountains to North Carolina, Illinois, and southeastern +Missouri; var. caroliniana (Loud.) Fern, and Rehd. — prickles of bur 1 to 3 (to 4) mm +long, usually abruptly reflexed from near base, leaves more acuminate and often merely +denticulate, found in moist or wet lowland forests, on or near Coastal Plain, Massachusetts +to Florida and Texas, and north in the Mississippi Valley to southern Illinois and Ohio; var. +pubescens Fern, and Rehd. — leaves soft-pubescent below, sometimes only slightly so. +Natives in Kentucky and other mountainous areas where both major varieties occur separate +them into Red and White Beech, due to color of wood.^^® ‘Abrams’ and ‘Abundance’ were +introduced into trade in 1926 by Willard Bixby. Both appeared to produce superior nuts. +‘Jenner’ is said to bear regular crops of exceptionally large nuts.^^^ (2n = 12.) +Distribution — Generally distributed throughout eastern U.S. and Canada, from Nova +Scotia and New Brunswick, south to Florida, west to Minnesota, Wisconsin south to Texas. +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest +Life Zones, American beech is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.7 to 12.8 dm +(mean of 9 cases = 10.5), annual temperature of 7.0 to 17.6°C (mean of 9 cases = 10.8°C), +and pH of 4.5 to 6.5 (mean of 8 cases = 5.5).^^ Grows well in acid soils on rather dry +hillsides, but will grow in lowlands of Coastal Plain. Thrives where soil is protected by +159 +mulch of its own leaves. On many rich upland and mountain slopes, this long-lived tree +forms nearly pure stands. Southward often found on bottom-lands and along margins of +swamps.Hardy to Zone 3.^^^ +Cultivation — Propagates readily from seed sown in fall or stratified and kept for sowing +in spring. Cover with V2 inch of soil; protect from vermin.Fall-sown beds should be +mulched until midsummer and kept in half-shade until past mid-summer of first year.^^^ +Seedlings should be transplanted frequently, for 2 to 3 years, to prevent formation of a long +taproot. Horticultural varities are grafted on seedling stock and grown on under glass until +planted out.^^^ Trees are slow-growing and may live 400 years or more.^^^ +Harvesting — Nuts are gathered after heavy frosts have caused them to drop to the +ground. Treated like other nuts until used.^^^ Fresh nuts will deteriorate within a few weeks +if not properly dried. Shells are easily removed with the fingernails.Wood is harvested +from trees 60 to 90 cm in diameter. +Yields and economics — Rudolf and Leak^®^ report between 2,860 to 5,060 cleaned +seeds per kg (1,300 to 2,300/lb). Beech nuts are a very minor product in North America, +compared to other nuts. Used more by people with limited supplies of nuts. Lumber is the +more important commercial product. +Energy — The heavy wood (sp. grav. 0.65 to 0.75) is used for fuel wood and charcoal. +The seeds, though copious at times, are so small that they could hardly be considered an +energy source. One could multiply seed yields by 0.5 to get a rough idea of the oil potential. +Biotic factors — Serious bark disease associated with the presence of beech scale, +prevalent in Canada and Maine. Dormant oil spray is used to check scale. Nicotine-sulfate +can be used when young leaves first appear. Mottle-leaf or scorch disease, resulting in +premature leaf-fail, is prevalent on American beech, the exact cause is not yet known. +The Agriculture Handbook 165"^ reports the following as affecting this species: Anthostoma +turgidum, Armillaria mellea, Botryosphaeria hoffmanni, Ceratostomella echinella, C. mi- +crospora, Cercospora sp., Coccomyces comitialis, C. coronatus, Coniothyrium fagi, Con- +opholis americana, Cryptodiaporthe galericulata, Cryptosporella compta, Cytospora spp., +C. pustulata, Daedalea ambigua, D. confragosa, D. unicolor, Daldinia concentrica, D. +vernicosa, Diaporthefagi, Diatrype spp., Dichaenafaginea, Discosia artocreas, Endobotrya +legans, Endoconidiophora virescens, Endothia gyrosa, Epifagus virginiana, Favolus alveo- +laris, Fomes applanatus, F. connatus, F. everhartii, F. formentarius, F. igniarius, F. +pinicola, Gloeosporium fagi, Graphium album, Hericium coralloides, H. laciniatum, Hy- +menochaete spp., Hypoxylon spp., Lasiophaeriapezizula, Libertellafaginea, Microsphaera +alni. Microstroma sp., Mycosphaerella fagi, M. punctiformis, Nectria cinnabarina, N. +coccinea, N. galligena, Pholiota spp., Phomopsis sp., Phoradendron flavescens, Phyllac- +tinia corylea, Phyllosticta faginea, Phytophthora cactorum, Polyporus spp., Poria spp., +Scorias spongiosa, Septobasidium spp., Steccherinum ochraceum, S. septentrionale, Ster- +eum spp., Strumella coryneoidea, Trametes spp., Ustulina deusta, U. linearis, Valsa spp., +Xylaria corniformis, and X. digitata. Erineum (leaf deformity caused by mites) is also +reported. In addition, Browne,lists: Fungi— Asterosporium hoffmannii, Cerrena unicolor, +Ganoderma appalanatum, Gnomonia veneta, Hericium caput-ursi, Hymenochaete tabacina, +Hypoxylon blakei, H. cohaerens, Inonotus glomeratus, I. obliquus, Phellinus igniarus, +Phyllactinea guttata, Polyporus adustus, P. hirsutus, P. versicolor, Poria laevigata, Sterum +fasciatum, S. purpureum, Torula ligniperda, Valsa leucostomoides. Hemiptera — Corythu- +cha pallipes. Cryptococcus fagi, Parthenolecanium corni, Phyllaphis fagi, Prociphilus im- +bricator. Lepidoptera — Alsophila pometaria, Cenopis pettitana, Choristoneura fractivittana, +Datana integerrima, D. ministra, Disphragia guttivitta, Ennomos magnaria, E. subsignaria, +Halisidota maculata, Hemerocampa leucostigma, Lymantria dispar, Nadata gibbosa, Op- +erophtera bruceata, Orgyia antiqua, Pandemis lamprosana, Paraclemensia acerifoliella, +Symmerista albifrons, S. leucitys, Tetralopha asperatella. Mammalia — Erethizon dorsatum. +160 Handbook of Nuts +FA G U S SYLVATICA L. (FAGACEAE) — European Beech +Uses — The nuts are sweet and edible when roasted. Roasted nuts can be used as a +substitute for coffee. Press-cake from decorticated nuts is used as a feed for cattle, pigs, +and poultry.Oil expressed from nuts is used for cooking, illumination, and manufacture of +soap. Used as a substitute for butter. Leaves used as a substitute for tobacco. Trees furnish +excellent timber. Wood is heavy, hard, straight-grained, close textured, durable, easy to +split, strong, resistant to abrasion, and used for flooring, cooperage, furniture, turnery, +utensils, wagons, agricultural implements, wooden shoes, spoons, plates, pianos, ship build­ +ing, railroad ties, brush backs, meat choppers, construction of dams, water-mills, excelsior, +wood pulp, and is an excellent fuel. Takes a good polish and can be easily bent when +steamed. In Norway and Sweden, boiled beech wood sawdust is baked and then mixed with +flour to form the material for bread. Source of creosote, which is used as a preservative +treatment of timber. Trees make excellent ornamental plants as leaves remain on tree most +of winter. +Folk medicine — Reported to be carminative, poison, analgesic, antidote, antipyretic, +antiseptic, apertif, astringent, laxative, parasiticide, refrigerant, and tonic, European beech +is a folk remedy for blood disorders and fever.Source of creosote, used as a deodorant +dusting powder in cases of gangrene and bed sores when mixed with plaster of paris.^° +Chemistry — Hager’s Handbookreports the leaves to contain pentosane, methylpen- +tosane, idalin, a wax, cerotonic acid, p-hydoxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, p-coumaric-, +ferulic-, caffeic-, chlorogenic-acid, and traces of inositol and sinapic acid; myricetin, leu- +codelphinidin, quercetin, isoquercitrin, leucocyanidin, and kaempferol; n-nonacosan, beta- +sitosterol, alanine, aminobutyric acid, arginine, asparagine, glutamine, hydroxy glutamic +acid, glycine, hydroxyproline, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, threo­ +nine, tyrosine, valine, serine; and a little cystine, tyrosine, and histidine. The seeds contain +25 to 45% oil (3.5% stearic-, ca.5% palmitic-, 40 to 76% oleic-, and ca.10% linoleic-acid); +also choline, neurine, trimethylamine, sugar, malic-, citric-, oxalic-, lactic-, and tannic- +acids; gums, betaine, sinapic-, caffeic-, and ferulic-acids; saponins, tannins, and the alkaloid +fagine. Bark contains 3 to 4% tannin, citric acid, beta-sitosterol, betulin. Arachidylalcohol +(arachinalcohol, n-eicosylalcohol C20H42O), vanilloside (C14H18O8), docosanol, tetracosanol, +hexacosanol; lauric-, myristic-, palmitic-, stearic-, oleic-, and linoleic-acid. Wood contains +0.5% 1-arabinose (C5H10O5), 18% d-xylose (C5H10O5), 1-rhamnose, and d-galactose.^^^ +Toxicity — Raw nuts are poisonous, probably due to the presence of a saponin (CSIR, +1948-1976). +Description — Trees deciduous, long-lived, up to 30 m tall, round-topped; trunk smooth, +gray; buds slender, fusiform, acute, reddish-brown; branches smooth. Leaves alternate, ovate +or elliptic, acute, cuneate or rounded at base, 5 to 10 cm long, glabrous, at least along +veins, with 5 to 8 pairs of conspicuous lateral veins, denticulate, shinking dark-green above, +turning reddish-brown in fall. Male flowers numerous, in long-stalked aments, perianth +divided almost to base; peduncles 5 to 6 cm long. Nut ovate, 12 to 30 mm in diameter, +brown; cupule woody, about 2.5 cm wide, deeply divided into 4 valves which are covered +outside with awl-shaped spines. April to May.^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the Euro-Siberian Center of Diversity, European beech, +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, high pH, limestone, low pH, shade, slope, and +smog.^^ There are many variations of leaf color and size, and branchlet habit. Some of the +horticultural varieties include: var. albovariegata — leaves variegated with white; var. +asplenifolia Lodd. — leaves very narrow, deeply toothed or lobed; var. atropunicea Sudw. +(var. atropurpúrea Hort., var. purpurea Ait., var. riversii Hort., var. suprea) — Purple +Beech, leaves purple; var. borneyensis — intermediate between vars. pén du la and tortusa\ +leaves coarsely toothed; var. laciniata (var. incisa Hort., var. heterophylla Loud.) — Femleaf +161 +or Cutleaf Beech, leaves deeply toothed or lobed or sometimes entire and linear; var. latifolia +— leaves to 15 cm long and 10 cm wide; var. luteovariegata — leaves variegated with +yellow; var. m iltoniensis — drooping form; var. pén du la Lodd. — Weeping Beech, branches +drooping; var. purpuero-pendula Hort. — branches drooping with purple leaves; var. ro- +seom arginata — leaves purple edged with pale pink; var. rotundifolia — leaves nearly +orbicular, 2.5 cm or less long; var. quercifolia Schelle (var. quercoides Hort.) — leaves +deeply toothed and sinuate; var. qu ercoides Pers. — bark dark, rough, oak-like; var. tortuosa +Dipp. (var. rem illyensis) — branches twisted and contorted, drooping at tips; var. tricolor +— leaves nearly white, spotted with green and edged with pink; var. varigata — leaves +variegated with white or yellow; var. zlatia Spaeth — leaves yellow.(2n = 22,24.^^) +D istrib u tion — Central and southern Europe, east to the Caucasus, ascending to 1,700 +m in Alps. Introduced to Ireland; widely planted as ornamental. Found as far north as +southeastern Norway. +E cology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Warm Temperate Dry +to Moist Forest Life Zones, European beech is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of +3.1 to 13.6 dm (mean of 29 cases = 7.8), annual temperature of 6.5 to 18.0°C (mean of +29 cases == 9.7°C), and pH of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean of 25 cases = 6.3).^^ In woods on well- +drained soils, often in mountains and on hillsides. Thrives on northern and eastern exposures, +enduring much shade, shunning poor soils and swamps, protecting and improving the soil. +Thrives on loamy limestone soil, but will grow on acid soils. Thrives where soils are protected +by mulch of its own leaves; growing best in dry sandy loams. Trees are relatively insensitive +to unfavorable conditions.Hardy to Zone 4.^"^^ +C u ltivation — Propagation readily attained by seed in fall or stratified and kept for sowing +in spring. Protect seeds and seedlings from vermin. Seedlings should be transp-anted every +second or third year to prevent formation of long taproot. Varieties are grafted on seedling +stock under glass. All upright forms may be clipped to form excellent hedges. +H arvestin g — Nuts are harvested in fall, usually after they fall to ground. Nuts are also +harvested all winter by wildlife. Timber harvested from mature trees. +Y ields and econ om ics — Since beech-nuts do not enter markets for human consumption, +no data are available. The nuts are not a commercial item, but are especially valuable as +food for wildlife. Trees form extensive forests, and the wood is a common hardwood tree +in Denmark and Germany, where it is raised as pure growth or as mixed woodland. Nurseries +propagate large numbers for ornamentals. +E n ergy — CanneP^ presents biomass data showing that trees ca. 100 years old, spaced +at 1200 trees per ha, averaged 23.7 m tall, a basal area of 48.2 m^/ha, and a stem volume +of 460 mVha. The stem wood plus the stem bark, on a DM basis, weighed 365 MT/ha, the +branches 49, the foliage 5, and the roots were estimated at 50 MT/ha for a total standing +biomass of ca. 468 MT/ha. The current annual increment (CAI) of stem wood and bark was +3.6 MT/ha/yr, which total was estimated at 9.3 MT/ha/yr. These data were taken in a brown +forest soil in Bulgaria 42 to 43°N, 23 to 25°E, 1400 to 1600 m elevation. On red alluvial +soil in Denmark (56°00'N, 12°20'E, elevation 200 m), 200-year-old trees, averaging 26 m +tall, had CAIs of only 5.9 mVha/yr compared with 12.7 for 54-year-old trees. Beck and +Mittman^^ showed that annual litter fall was close to 5 MT/ha in a pure beech stand in the +Black Forest of West Germany (mean annual temperature 8.3°, annual precipitation 10.5 +dm; elevation 325 m). In Sweden, Nihlgard and Lindgren^^^ cite annual above-ground +productivity of 10.4 to 16.7 MT/ha with yearly increments (CAI) of 7.1 to 11.0 MT/ha. +Apparently, the annual productivity ranges from 3 to 17 MT/ha. Such biomass could and +does serve as a source of energy in temperate forests. The wood is an excellent fuel,^^"^ and +would probably make good charcoal. +B iotic factors — Wooly aphis often covers the surface of leaves of European beech; it +is controlled by application of oil spray. Nicotine sulfate also is used when young leaves +162 Handbook of Nuts +first appear. Trees are relatively free of fungal and bacterial diseases and are not seriously +damaged by insects or other p e s t s . The Agriculture Handbook 165"^ lists the following as +affecting this species: Armillaria mellea, Endothia gyrosa. Massaria macrospora, Nectria +cinnabarina, Phomopsis spp., and Phytophthora cactorum. Erineum — leaf deformity caused +by mites, Leaf Scorch — cause unknown, and Mottle Leaf — cause unknown are also listed. +In addition, Browne^^ lists: Fungi — Armillaria mucida, Asteroporium hoffmannii, Auri- +cularia auricula-judae, Bulgaria inquinans, Cerrena unicolor, Daedalea quercina, Endothia +parasitica. Fistulina hepática. Pomes annosus, F. conchatus, F. fomentarius, F. fraxineus, +F. pinicola, Ganoderma applanatum, Gnomonia veneta, Helicobasidium purpureum. Her- +icium erinaceus, Hydnum cirrhatum, H. diversidens, Hysterographium fraxini, Inonotus +cuticularis, /. obliquus, Laetiporus sulphureus, Microsphaera alphitoides, Nectria coccinea, +N. coccinea faginata, N. ditissima, N. galligena, Oxyporus populinus, Phellinus igniaris, +Pholiota adiposa, Phyllactinia guttata, Phytophthora cinnamomi, P. syringae, Pleurotus +ostretus, P. ulmarius, Polyporus adustus, P. giganteas, P. squamosus, P. zonatus, Pythium +debaryanum, P. ultimum, Rosellinia quercina, Steccherinum septentrionale, Stereum hir- +sutum, S. purpureum, S. rugosum, Trametes hispida, Truncatella hartigii, Ustulina deusta, +Volvariella bombycina. Angiospermae — Viscum album. Coleóptera — Agrilus viridis. +Apoderas coryli, Byctiscus betulae, Cerambyx cerdo, Leperisinus varias, Melolontha mel- +olontha, Mesosa nebulosa, Phyllobius argentatus. Platypus cylindrus, Prionous coriareus, +Rhynchaenus fagi, Rhynchites betulae, Strophosomus coryli, Xyleborus dispar. Diptera — +Contarinia fagi, Hartigiola annulipes, Mikola fagi, Oligotrophus fagineus, Phegobia tor- +natella, Phegomyiafagicola. Hemiptera — Cryptococcus fagi, Fagocyba cruenta, Phyllaphis +fagi. Hymenoptera — Caliroa annulipes, Nematus fagi. Lepidoptera — Carcina quercana, +Cossus cossus, Diurnea fagella, Ectropis crepuscularia, Hepialus humuli, Laspeyresia fa- +giglandana, Lithocolletis faginella, Lymantria monacha, Nepticula hemargyrella, N. tityr- +ella, Operophtera bramata, Strophedra weirana, Tortrix viridana. Aves — Columba +palumbus. Mammalia — Apodemus sylvaticus, Clethrionomys glarcolus. Dama dama. Mi­ +crotis agrestis, Sciurus carolinensis, S. vulgaris. +163 +GINKGO BILOBA L. (GINKGOACEAE) — Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree +Uses — Valued by the Orientals as a sacred tree, for food, medicine, and ritual. Once +the acrid nauseous pulp is removed from around them, the seeds can be boiled or roasted +to make a delicacy, the nut, with a flavor likened by one author to mild Swiss cheese. As +a delicacy at feasts, the nuts are supposed to aid digestion and alleviate the effects of drinking +too much wine. Important in oriental medicine, the ginkgo is now under cultivation as a +medicinal plant in the Occident. Chinese use the seed to wash clothing. Seed are digested +in wine to make a cosmetic detergent.The thick fleshy seed coat is used as an insecticide. +The light, yellowish, brittle wood is used for chess-boards and toys. Very valuable in highly +polluted air as an ornamental shade tree, along streets and in parks. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the nuts are used in folk remedies for cancer +in China, the plant for corns in Japan. In China, macerated in vegetable oil for 100 days, +the fruit pulp is traditionally used for asthma, bronchitis, gonorrhea, tuberculosis, and +worms.^ According to Monachino,"^*^ the nauseous fruit juice becomes antitubercular after +immersing in oil for three months. This activity is not lost with sterilization at 100°C for +30 min. Daily administration of 150 gm/kg of the extract of the oil-immersed fruits showed +definite activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in guinea pigs. Pan-fried seeds are used +for leucorrhea, polyuria, seminal emissions, and tuberculosis; seeds, seedcoats, or leaves +are used for asthma, cough, leucorrhea, spermatorrhea. Seeds are considered antitussive, +astringent, sedative. Raw seed is said to be anticancer, antivinous; with a fishy taste; they +164 Handbook of Nuts +are consumed, dyed red, at Chinese weddings; said to help bladder ailments, blenorrhea, +and uterine fluxes. Used for cardiovascular ailments in Szechuan. Ginkgolic acid is active +against the tubercle bacillus. Elsewhere, leaf extracts are used in peripheral arterial circulation +problems like arteriosclerotic angiopathy, post-thrombotic syndrome, diabetic vasoconstric­ +tion with gangrene and angina, intermittent claudication, Raynaud’s disease. Extracts are +inhaled for ear, nose, and throat ailments like bronchitis and chronic rhinitis.^ +Chemistry — Per 100 g, seeds (ZMB) contain 403 calories, 10.2 to 10.5% protein, 3.1 +to 3.5% fat, 83.0% total carbohydrate, 1.3 g fiber, 3.1 to 3.8 g ash, 11 mg Ca, 327 mg P, +2.6 mg Fe, 15.3 mg Na, 1139 mg K, 392 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.52 mg thiamine, +0.26 mg riboflavin, 6.1 mg niacin, and 54.5 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Dry kernels (ca. 59% of +the seed weight) contain; 6% sucrose, 67.9% starch, 13.1% protein, 2.9% fat, 1.6% pen­ +tosans, 1% fiber, and 3.4% ash. The globulin of the kernel, accounting for 60% of the total +nitrogen, is rich in tryptophane. Fruit pulp, bitter and astringent, contains a volatile oil and +a number of fatty acids from formic to caprylic. Press-juice contains: ginnol (C27H56O), +bilobol (C2,H3402), ginkgol (C24H34O), ginkgic acid (C24H42O2), ginkgolic (hydroxy) acid +(C22H34O3), ginkgolic (saturated oxy) acid (C2,H3203), ginkgolic acid (C24H48O2), an acid +corresponding to the formula C21H42O3, an acidic oil, asparagine, reducing sugars, and +phosphoric acid. Autumn leaves contain ginnol, sitosterol (C27H64)), ipuranol (C33H56O6), +shikimic acid or shikimin (C7H10O5), linolenic acid, acacetin, apigenin, and substances +conforming to the formula CnH,405 and Ci,Hi406. Fallen leaves of the plant contain a bright +yellow crystalline substance, ginkgetin (C32H220,o). Leafy branches contain ceryl alcohol +and sterols. Staminate flowers of Paris-grown trees contain 3.27 to 3.57% (ZMB) deoxy­ +ribonucleic acid. Male inflorescence may contain raffinose (up to 4% on fresh weight basis). +Wood contains raffinose and xylan (2.5%). Bark contains tannin dissolved in a pectinous +mucus. +Toxicity — Seeds are reputed to be toxic raw, sometimes resulting in children’s deaths. +According to Duke and Ayensu,^ large quantities can induce convulsions, dyspnea, emesis, +and pyreticosis. Expressed fruit Juice causes erythema, edema, papules, pustules, and intense +itching. Some suggest that even old nuts can induce dermatitis. The pollen may cause hay +fever. +Description — Deciduous dioecious trees to nearly 35 m tall, often slenderly conical and +sparsely branched when young, spreading in age. Leaves on stalks up to 7.5 cm long, fan­ +shaped, usually 5 to 8 (15 to 20) cm across, with 2 large lobes, usually undulate or notched, +but with numerous branching parallel veins. Male and female strobili on different trees. +Males appear in early spring as catkins drooping from short shoots (3 to 6 on one shoot), +bearing numerous loosely arranged stamens. Female axes arise from short spur shoots in +pairs or in threes, each with a long stalk bearing on each side a naked ovule, surrounded +at the base by a collar-like rim. Seed with a yellow fleshy outer covering enveloping the +woody shell containing the edible kernel.Seeds 400 to 1,150 per kg. +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, ginkgo, or cvs thereof, +is reported to tolerate acid soil, air pollution, disease, frost, insects, and slope. Dallimore +and Jackson"^^^ describe several ornamental cvs, ‘Aurea’ with leaves yellow even in summer, +‘Fastigiata’ with the branches almost erect, ‘Laciniata’ with deeply cut leaves, ‘Pendula’ +with weeping branches, and ‘Variegata’ with yellow-variegated leaves. +Distribution — Rarely seen wild, even in China and Japan, yet doing well widely in the +temperate world as a cultivar. Rosengarten,^®^ terming it “ unknown in the wild’’, notes that +it has been cultivated as a sacred tree in Chinese Buddhist temple courtyards for over 1,000 +years. Introduced into America in 1784, it has generally been successful on good sites in +moist temperate areas of the midwestem and eastern U.S., and along the St. Lawrence River +in Canada.^ +Ecology — Estimated to range from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Warm Tern- +165 +perate Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones, ginkgo is expected to tolerate annual precipitation +of 8 to 12 dm, annual temperature of 9 to 14°C, and pH of 4.5 to 6. Waterlogging, strong +winds, hardpan, and alkaline soils are to be avoided. According to Balz,"^^^ though ginkgo +tolerates cold, frost, and snow, it does well with summer temperatures above 25°C and air +relative-humidity ca. 50 to 60%. Monthly rainfall in summer should not fall below 40 mm. +Deep, light, mellow soils, well-drained and aerated, produce optimal growth. Good growth +is reported on soils with 2% coarse sand, 10% fine sand, 37% coarse silt, 40% fine silt, +and 11% clay, as well as 5% coarse sand, 45% fine sand, 25% coarse silt, 15% fine silt, +and 10% clay. Soils should not contain more than 10 to 15% clay. A pH of 5 to 5.5 is +recommended with 100 to 200 ppm P2O5, 260 to 400 ppm K2O, 60 to 120 ppm Mg, 3 to +5% humus, and <1% salts. The soil should warm up early in spring with late autumn leaf +fall; i.e., no frost between April 1 and October 31 (7 month or more growing season). +Isolation of 1,800 to 2,000 hr/year (250 hr/month midsummer) is considered adequate. +C ultivation — Chinese say that triquetrous seeds produce male trees, lenticular seeds +produce females. Seeds germinate readily but grow slowly. Cuttings take as long as 2 years +to root. Seed should be cold-stratified 30 to 60 days for seed collected before completion +or after ripening. Germinative capacity may vary from about (0 to) 30 to 85%. For amenity +plantings, seeds should be sown in furrows in November and covered with 5 to 8 cm soil +and a sawdust mulch. Based on limited studies, one Swiss firm, planning to grow the plant +in the U.S., suggested sowing the seed under plastic tunnels at a spacing of 25 x 4 cm, +equalling ca. 1,000,000 seed per ha. With an 80% germination rate, there were 800,000 +plants per ha, held in the tunnel for 2 years, expected to attain 30 cm the first year, 1.2 m +the second. In autumn of year 2 or spring of year 3, taproots are shortened to 10 to 15 cm +by under-cutting the stems, cut back to 30 cm by mowing. In the spring of the year, plants +are outplanted mechanically, at 100 x 30 cm or 33,000 plants per ha. +H arvestin g — For the pharmaceutical industry, plants are cut back to 30 cm every year +in October. Trees start bearing fruits at ca. age 25"^^^ (Monachino, 1956) or 30-40 years^ +(Ag. Handbook 450, 1974). +Y ields and E con om ics — In heavy fruiting years, the trees can bear enough fruits to +cover 50% of the area circumscribed by the crowns. The Swiss Pharmaceutical firm antic­ +ipated 2,400 to 3,200 kg green leaves per ha in the third year (first year outplanted), 6,000 +to 8,000 in the second year outplanted, and 20,000 to 25,000 kg in the third year outplanted. +E nergy — From a biomass point of view, the ginkgo is not very promising as an energy +species. The pulp and seed husks are waste products, when the nuts are gathered. Both +could be extracted for chemurgics, then processed into energy products. Extracted leaves +could also be useful for biomass fuels. +B iotic factors — According to Monachino,the tree is not attacked by insects and it +is resistant to disease. The A griculture H andbook 165"^ reports the following as affecting +ginkgo: F om es connatus (sapwood or wound rot), G lom erella cingulata (leaf spot, anthrac- +nose), M eloidogyne sp. (root knot nematodes), P h yllosticta ginkgo (leaf spot), P hym atotri- +chum om nivorum , P olyporu s spp. (sapwood rot), and X ylaria longeana (seed rot). +166 Handbook of Nuts +GNETUM GNEMON L. (GNETACEAE) — Manindjo, Malindjo, Tangkil +Uses — In India, the seeds are eaten after roasting or cooking. Filipinos use the fruits as +a coffee substitute.Fruits are first peeled and then cooked in Java; then the homy testa +can be separated; kernels are then pounded and sundried. This mass is then fried in coconut +oil and salted to eat with rice. Also sweetened and eaten as a delicacy with tea or coffee. +Young leaves are eaten, raw or steamed. Young leaves and inflorescences are cooked with +sea food.^^® In Fiji, young leaves are cooked with coconut milk. Bark yields a fiber used +for making rope.^^ To obtain the strong fiber, durable in sea water, the branches are peeled +and the bark beaten and split into fine filaments. With good tensile and breaking strengths, +the fiber is valued for fishing and nets.^® The wood from old trees is dark, brittle, and not +very durable. Younger poles are used for mooring posts for rafts and boats. Branches may +be split for cooperage. +Folk medicine — Indochinese use the roots as a general antidote to poison. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the kernel is reported to contain 30 g H2O, 10.9 g protein, 1.6 +g fat, 52.9 g total carbohydrate, 0.9 g fiber, and 1.7 g ash. Young leaves and stem tips +contain 81.9% H^O, 1.33% ash, 0.24% P2O5, 0.11% CaO, and 0.01% Fe203."'' +Toxicity — If eaten raw, the young leaves, inflorescences and fmits may irritate the +mouth. +Description — Tree (sometimes lianoid) 5 to 22 m high, the crown narrow, conical; +tmnk straight or somewhat crooked; main branches whorled, often somewhat drooping. +Leaves opposite, shortly stalked, oblong-lanceolate or elliptic-oblong; base acute, obtuse or +rounded, apex shortly acuminate, acute; entire, thinly coriaceous, above dark-green, shining, +beneath light-green, pinnatinerved, 5 to 20 cm long, 3 to 8 cm wide, petiole 0.5 to 1 cm +long. Flowers dioecious, sometimes apparently monoecious, in stalked articulate spikes +composed of 5 to 8 whorls; whorls supported by an undulate cup. Male spikes single or +fascicled, 3 to 5 cm long; female spikes solitary, usually longer than the male ones, to 10 +cm long; stalks of the inflorescences 1.2 to 2 cm long. Fruits sessile, ellipsoid, shortly +167 +cuspidate, 2 to 2.5 cm long, dark-red when ripe, containing a single large starchy edible +seed.^^’^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian Center of Diversity, manindjo, +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate alternating dry and wet seasons. Var. ovalifolium is +considered the wild type, var. gnemon the cultivar. +Distribution — Native from Assam to Malaysia and Fiji, introduced to Java, Sumatra, +and else where. +Ecology — Better adpated to seasonal than to ever-humid tropical forests. +Cultivation — Cultivated in Asian plains, extending easily to an altitude of 1200 m. +Sometimes planted in orchards, but mostly in mixed gardens. In the Solomon Islands, seeds +may be sown, but more frequently, seedlings are transplanted from beneath established trees. +Vegetative propagation is not known in Santa Cruz on the Solomons. Trees sometimes polled +to keep them low. They recover readily from pruning. +Harvesting — In Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands, fruiting peaks around September to +October and March to April.Fibers are said to be best harvested when trees are 5 m tall. +Notable for their ability to recover from the near girdling induced by fiber harvest, the older +trees, often scarred, may be harvested again. +Yields and economics — Rare in the markets of Malaya, more common in Java.^^ +Energy — In Fiji, at least, the plant is used for firewood. +Biotic factors — No data available. +168 Handbook of Nuts +HELIANTHUS ANNUUS L. (ASTERACEAE) — Sunflower +Uses — Cultivated primarily for the seeds which yield the world’s second most important +source of edible oil. Sunflower oil is used for cooking, margarine, salad dressings, lubri­ +cation, soaps, and illumination. A semi-drying oil, it is used with linseed and other drying +oils in paints and varnishes. Decorticated press-cake is used as a high protein food for +livestock. Kernels eaten by humans raw, roasted and salted, or made into flour. Poultry and +cage birds are fond of raw kernels. Flowers yield a yellow dye. Plants used for fodder, +silage and green-manure crop. Hulls provide filler in livestock feeds and bedding. +Folk medicine — Medicinally, seeds are diuretic, expectorant, and used for colds, coughs, +throat, and lung ailments. According to Hartwell,the flowers and seeds are used in folk +remedies for cancer in Venezuela, often incorporated in white wine. Reported to be anodyne. +169 +antiseptic, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, deobstruent, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, insecti­ +cidal, malaria preventive, sunflower is a folk remedy for aftosa, blindness, bronchiectasis, +bronchitis, carbuncles, catarrh, cold, colic, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, dysuria, epistaxis, +eyes, fever, flu, fractures, inflammations, laryngitis, lungs, malaria, menorrhagia, pleuritis, +rheumatism, scorpion stings, snakebite, splenitis, urogenital ailments, whitlow, and wounds. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 560 calories, 4.8 g H2O, 24.0 +g protein, 47.3 g fat, 19.4 g total carbohydrate, 3.8 g fiber, 4.0 g ash, 120 mg Ca, 837 mg +P, 7.1 mg Fe, 30 p,g Na, 920 mg K, 30 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 1.96 mg thiamine, +0.23 mg riboflavin, 5.4 mg niacin, and 0 mg ascorbic acid. Seeds contain 25 to 35 % oil, +but cultivars have been bred in Russia with up to 50% oil. Oil contains 44 to 72% linoleic +acid, and 13 to 20% protein of high biological value and digestibility. Stems and husks are +rich in potash. +The forage (ZMB) contains 8.8% protein, 2.9% fat, 77.2% total carbohydrate, 30.3 g +fiber, and 11.1 g ash. Young shoots contain: 13.0% protein, 1.9% fat, 70.3% total car­ +bohydrate, 20.4 g fiber, 14.8 g ash, 1,670 mg Ca, and 370 mg P per 100 g. The flowers +contain 12.7% protein, 13.7% fat, 64.3% total carbohydrate, 32.9 g fiber, 9.3 g ash, 630 +mg Ca, and 80 mg P per 100 Sunflower oil has a high concentration of linoleic acid, +intermediate level of oleic acid, and very low levels of linolenic acid. The saturated acids, +palmitic and stearic, rarely exceed 12%, and the minor acids, lauric, arachidic, behenic, +lignoceric, eicosenoic, etc. rarely add up to as much as 2%. Tocopherol, or vitamin E, is +an important vitamin and natural antioxidant. Sunflower oil is somewhat unique in that the +alpha form predominates, with 608, 17, and 11 mg/kg of alpha, beta, and gamma, compared +with 116, 34, and 737, respectively, for soybean oil.^^ +Description — Variable, erect, often unbranched, fast-growing, annual herb; stems 0.7 +to 3.5 m tall, hirsute. Leaves alternate, ovate, long-petioled, lamina with 3 main veins, 10 +to 30 cm long, 5 to 20 cm wide, apex acute or acuminate, lower leaves opposite and cordate. +Flowering head terminal on main stem, 10 to 40 cm in diameter, rotating to face the sun, +sometimes drooping, heads on lateral branches smaller; outer ray flowers neuter with yellow +ligulate corolla, disc florets numerous, spirally arranged, perfect; ovary inferior with single +basal ovule. Achenes obovoid, compressed, slightly 4-angled, variable in size and color, +seldom less than 1 cm long, usually from 1 to 1.5 cm long, full-colored or striped. Taproot +strong, penetrating to depth of 3 m and with large lateral spread of surface roots. Flowers +late summer and fall; fruits fall.^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the North American (and secondarily, the Eurosiberian) +Center of Diversity, sunflower, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, frost, +fungi, high pH, laterite, limestone, low pH, mycobacteria, photo-period, poor soil, rust, +salt, sand, smog, virus, weeds, and waterlogging.®^ Botanically, the sunflower is treated as +the following subspecies: ssp. lenticularis is the wild sunflower; ssp. annuus is the weedy +wild sunflower; and ssp. macrocarpus is cultivated for edible seeds. Cultivars are divided +into several types: Giant types: 1.8 to 4.2 m tall, late maturing, heads 30 to 50 cm diameter, +seeds laige, white or gray, or with black stripes; oil content rather low; ex. ‘Mammoth +Russian’. Semi-dwarf types: 1.3 to 1.8 m tall, early maturing, heads 17 to 23 cm diameter, +seeds smaller, black, gray or striped; oil content higher; ex., ‘Pole Star’ and ‘Jupiter’. Dwarf +types: 0.6 to 1.4 m tall, early maturing, heads 14 to 16 cm diameter, seeds small, oil content +highest; ex., ‘Advance’ and ‘Sunset’. Gene centers are in the Americas, with genuine +resources for resistance in southern U.S. and Mexico. Two types of male sterility are known. +Although “ sunchoke” is the name given to the hybrid with the Jerusalem artichoke, much +of what is sold as sunchoke in the U.S. is, in fact, straight Jerusalem artichoke. (2n = +3 4 )82,278 +Distribution — Native to western North America, sunflower is one of a few crops to +have evolved within the present confines of the U.S. Early introduced to Europe and Russia, +the species has now spread to countries both tropical and temperate. +170 Handbook of Nuts +Ecology — Sunflowers are grown from the Equator to 55°N Lat. In the tropics, they +grow better at medium to high elevations, but tolerate the drier lowlands. They thrive +wherever good crops of com are grown. Young plants withstand mild freezing. Plants are +intolerant of shade. As sunflowers have highly efficient root systems, they can be grown in +areas which are too dry for many crops. Plants are quite drought-resistant except during +flowering. In South Africa, reasonable yields have been obtained with 25 cm of rainfall by +dwarf CVS. Giant types require more moist conditions. Crops may be grown on a wide range +of soils, including poor soils, provided they are deep and well-drained. Plants are intolerant +of acid or waterlogged soils. Ranging from Boreal Moist through Tropical Thom to Wet +Forest Life Zones, sunflower tolerates annual precipitation of 2 to 40 dm (mean of 195 cases += 11.4), annual temperature of 6 to 28°C (mean of 194 cases = 19.6), and pH of 4.5 to +8.7 (mean of 121 cases = 6.6)®^’^^* +Cultivation — Seed, harvested at 12% moisture content and stored, will retain viability +for several years. Sunflower production may be adapted to mechanized or unmechanized +societies. Propagation is always by seed. Plant with com or beet planter, 2.5 to 7.5 cm +deep, spaced 0.2 m apart in 0.6 to 0.9 m rows; seed rate of 5.6 kg/ha, giving about 62,500 +plants per ha. May be planted earlier in spring than com, since plants are more tolerant to +frost. Early weed control is an important factor in yield, so cultivate lightly and early. +Sunflowers respond well to a balanced fertilizer based on soil test; usually a 1-2-3 NPK +ratio is best, with a need for boron and other trace elements on lighter soils. Application of +foliar fertilizers of liquid NPK on plants increases yield 62% with one application and 97% +with two applications. Sunflowers should not occur in rotation more than once in every 4 +years, and should not be in rotations with potatoes. +Harvesting — Crop matures about 4 months from sowing; some Russian cvs mature in +70 days. Harvest when involucral bracts turn yellow and seeds become loose, but before +shedding begins. Harvesting methods are similar to those of com: heads are gathered, dried, +and threshed. For fodder or silage, crop is harvested at the flowering stage. Seed oil is either +cold- or hot-pressed. Cold-pressed oil is usually pale-yellow, with a mild taste and pleasant +odor, much esteemed as a salad and cooking oil, especially for butter substitutes. Hot-pressed +oil is reddish-yellow and is used for technical purposes and as a burning oil. With modem +methods, hot-pressed oil may be refined for edible purposes. +Yields and economics — Average yields range from 900 to 1,575 kg/ha of seed; however, +yields of over 3,375 kg/ha have been reported. Heads may contain 1,000 to 4,000 florets, +with the potential of as many seeds. Yields from dried seeds are 40% oil, 35% protein meal, +and 20 to 25% hulls. In 1979, the world low production yield was 308 kg/ha in Algeria, +the international production yield was 1,266 kg/ha, and the world high production yield was +2,420 kg/ha in A ustria.W ith DM yields ranging from 4 to 9 MT/ha (in 3 months) and +seed yields ranging from 300 to more than 3,000 kg/ha, a straw factor of 3 seems appropriate. +With an average yield of ca. 1,500 kg/ha (North Dakota), a hectare would yield nearly 225 +gallons of oil, 75% of which could be extracted on the farm. Twelve to 15 gallons are +required to raise a hectare; hence the fuel from one hectare could produce 8 to 11 hectares +of crop. In the U.S., the highest average commercial yields occurred in North Dakota and +Minnesota, which averaged 1,170 and 1,267 kg/ha respectively, compared with 1,019 kg/ha +for Texas. Pryde and Doty^^® suggest average oil yields of 589 kg/ha from 1,469 kg/ha seed. +Telek and Martin^^^ suggest oil yields of 450 kg/ha. Experimentally, at Davis, California, +April plantings yielded 2,592 to 3,181 kg/ha (45.5 to 48.5% oil). May plantings, 2,676 to +3,161 kg/ha (45.5 to 48.4% oil), June plantings 956 to 2,643 kg/ha (40.8 to 43.7% oil), +and July plantings 702 to 2,447 kg/ha (40.2 to 42.6% oil). The lowest oil yield was 282 +kg/ha, the highest, 1,543 kg/ha.^^ In India, rain-fed sunflower gave seed yields of 1,120 +kg/ha in pure stands, 1,050 to 1,070 intercropped with cowpea, and 1,010 to 1,070 kg/ha +intercropped with peanuts.Volunteer sunflowers themselves may constitute a weed prob­ +171 +lem, as few as 3/m^ reducing wheat yields by 16%, 23/m^ reducing yields by 35%. World +production of sunflower seed in 1970 was 9.6 million MT, grown on 8.2 million ha, yielding +1,170 kg/ha. Largest producers are the USSR, Rumania, Bulgaria, Argentina, Yugoslavia, +Turkey, and South Africa. In the tropics, Tanzania produces 10,000 to 20,000 MT per year. +Cultivars grown in Minnesota contain higher percentages of the desirable linoleic acid than +same cultivars in other states. Major importers of sunflower seed were Italy, West Germany, +and Japan. Oil prices in the U.S. in 1970 were $331/ton. Production costs in fully mechanized +production in the U.S. is about SlOO/ha with fertilizer, $87 without; hand labor figured at +$2/hr. By 1982, sunflower oil was trading at $.59/kg compared to $.50 to .54 for coconut, +$.53 for com oil, $.48 for cottonseed, $.59 for linseed, and $.42 for soybean. +Energy — According to the USD A phytomass files, annual productivity ranges from +3 to 15 MT/ha. North Dakota researchers are testing a small auger press, operated on the +farm, that can extract ca.75 to 80% of the oil in sunflower seeds, or ca. 55 gallons (barely +more than one 42-gallon barrel) from an average yield of 1,400 Ib/acre. It takes one acre’s +production to farm and produce 8 to 11 more acres, our usual 10:1 ratio. In North Carolina, +Harwoodconcluded that sunflower seed was most promising for on-farm production of +vegetable oil fuels; soybeans, peanuts, and cottonseed considered not well-suited. Sunflowers +yield ca. 2.5 MT/ha, with ca. 40% oil, indicating a potential of 250 gallons of oil per ha +if seed were processed in a mill. On-farm processing would produce closer to 200 gallons +(ca. 5 barrels) at a cost of more than $2.00 per gallon. Production costs are less than one +barrel per hectare. Harwood puts the energetic returns at greater than 5:1 compared to 3:1 +for peanuts, 2:1 for soybeans, and 1:1 for cottonseed. Pratt et al.^^^ report an endurance test +involving engines fueled with various mixtures of sunflower oil (25 to 50%) with diesel oil +(75 to 50%). Two motors needed repair, ten were operating with no apparent difficulties, +of which two were said to be doing even better. Ohio yields on poor soils (Wood County) +were only 260 Ib/acre (yielding 9.3 gallons of screw press oil); and on good soils (Champaign +County), 1,680 Ib/acre (yielding 69.1 gallons oil) cropped after wheat in a double-cropping +system. Sunflower oil should be dewaxed before being used as a diesel substitute. In +Australia, sunflower was first commercially planted in 1967, has great potential for expansion +as a rainfed energy crop. Little water is required for processing oilseeds (unlike ethanol), +and the seed coat can provide sufficient energy for heat and steam for oil extraction. +Australians figure a net energy gain of 2 € for every 3 € produced. A hundred kg of dry +seed will yield about 40 kg oil, 15 to 25 kg hulls, and 40 kg proteinaceous meal. Hulls +have been pressed into fuel “ logs” . Threshed heads are ground and fed to cattle elsewhere. +The heads are rich in pectin. Studies have shown that sunflower yields 33.1 MT silage per +ha, compared to com at 19.26 MT/ha. Annual DM productivity ranges from 3 to 15 MT/ha. +DM yields averaged closer to 5 MT spaced at 43,000 plants per ha, 8 MT spaced at 172,000 +plants per ha near Clarksville, Maryland. In these experiments, the sunflower followed +barley.Jake Page’s discussion^"^^ is picturesque: “ But I happen to like sunflow­ +ers . . . They can be grown almost anywhere in the country and you can grow between 500 +and 3,000 pounds of sunflower seeds on an American acre in three months if you’re clever. +The soil can be lousy, the rainfall terrible . . . if the average American com farmer put 10 +percent of his land into sunflowers, he could become self-sufficient in fuel. It seems that +using vegetable oil may be more efficient, in a net energy sense, than growing plants for +conversion into alcohol (another nice alternative fuel) because the processing for alcohol is +more elaborate, expensive, and energy intensive.” +Biotic factors — In the USDA’s Agriculture Re sear a new pest of sunflower is +reported. A scarab beetle {Phyllophaga lancolata) devastated more than 400 ha near Lehman, +Texas. Eucosma womonana, is also a newly reported sunflower pest in Texas. Seed is set +low when selfed, as most cvs are self-incompatible. Florets on one head open over 5 to 6 +days and may wait 2 weeks for fertilization. Cross-pollination may be facilitated by 2 to 3 +172 Handbook of Nuts +hives of honeybees per ha, the hives spaced in rows 300 to 400 m apart, as they need to +be distributed to give coverage to all blooms. Gophers dig up seeds; birds eat tremendous +amounts of seeds from the maturing crop. Insects can be destructive to seeds not stored +properly. The following fungi are known to cause diseases in sunflowers: Albugo trago- +pogonis, Alternarla tenuis, Alternarla zinniae, Armillaria mellea, Ascochyta helianthi, Bo­ +trytis cinerea, Cercospora bidentis, Cercospora helianthi, Cercospora helianthicola, +Cercospora pachypus, Corticium rolfsii, Cystopus cubicus, Cystopus tragopogonis, Dia- +porthe arctii, Diplodina helianthi, Entyloma polysporum, Erysiphe chicoracearum, Fusar­ +ium acuminatum, Fusarium conglutinans, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium equiseti, Fusarium +javanicum, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium sambucinum, Fusarium scirpi, Fusarium sem- +itecum, Fusarium solani, Helminthosporium helianthi, Leptosphaeria helianthi, Leveillula +compositarum, Leveillula taurica, Macrophomina phaseoli, Oidium helianthi, Ophiobolus +helianthi, Phialea cynthoides, Phoma olerácea, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, Plasmopara +halstedii, Puccinia helianthi, Pythium debaryanum, Pythium irregulare, Phythium splen- +dens, Pythium ultimum, Rhabdospora helianthicola, Rhizoctonia rocorum, Rhizoctonia so­ +lani, Rhizoctonia bataticola, Rhizopus nodosus, Sclerotinia fuckeliana, Sclerotinia libertiana, +Sclerotinia minor, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Septoria helianthi, Sphaer- +othecafulginea, Sphaerotheca humuli, Uromycesjunci, Verticillium albo-atrum, Verticillium +dahliae. Bacteria reported as infecting sunflowers include: Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Bac­ +terium melleum, Erwinia aroides. Pseudomonas cichorii. Pseudomonas helianthi, and Pseu­ +domonas solanacearum. Virus diseases reported from sunflowers are Apple mosaic, Argentine +sunflower. Aster yellows, Brazilian tobacco streak. Cucumber mosaic. Tomato spotted wilt. +Peach ringsport. Peach yellow-bud mosaic. Pelargonium leaf-curl. Tobacco necrosis. To­ +bacco ringspot, and Yellows. Sunflowers are parasitized by the following flowering plants: +Cuscuta pentagona. Cuscuta arvensis, Orobanche aegyptiaca, Orobanche cumana. Oro­ +banche muteli. Orobanche ramosa. Striga hermonthica. Striga asiatica. Striga lutea. Striga +senegalensis. Sunflowers are attacked by many nematodes: Anguina balsamophila, Aphe- +lenchoides ritzemabosi, Ditylenchus destructor, Ditylenchus dipsaci, Helicotylenchus cav- +enessi, Helicotylenchus microcephalus, Helicotylenchus microlobus, Helicotylenchus +pesudorobustus, Heterodera schachtii, Longidorus maximus, Meloidognye arenaria, Me- +loidogyne hap la, Meloidogyne incognita acrita, Meloidogyne javanica, Meloidogyne tha- +mesi, Paratylenchus minutus, Pratylenchus penetrans, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Scutellonema +clathricaudatum, Trichodorus christiei, dXiá Xiphinema ifacolum^'^^^'^^^ +173 +HYPHAENE THEBAICA (L.) Mart. (ARECACEAE) Doum Palm +U ses — Unripe kernels are edible, but the ripe kernels are hard as a marble, and even +strung together to make a weapon. In Bomu Africa, the nuts are pounded to make a meal +sold instead of millet. The rind of the fruits is dry and sweet, edible in some, inedible in +others. The part of the germinating seedling just below ground is edible, as is the cabbage +or palm heart. Trunks yield a sago starch. Osbom^'*^ relates how people in Kharga gnaw on +the glossy brown fruits. Though fibrous and tough, the fruits have a pleasant flavor suggestive +of carob or ginger bread. Beverages are made from the fruits. In parts of the Sahara desert, +the spongy internal parts of the fruit are an important dietary element. Mixed with date +infusion, the doum nut constitutes a cooling drink much valued medicinally. Stalks of the +cotyledons are eaten. Inner leaves are valued for forage, while the outer may be used for +fuel. Fronds, usually unexpanded, used in plaited strips to make mats, hats, baskets, fans, +bowls, and ropes. A fiber obtained from the root is used for snares and fish nets. Fronds +of the palm are used for fuel. The hard fruit, used as vegetable ivory, is also the source of +a black dye. Stems are used in house construction. Ashes are used as +F olk m ed icin e — According to HartwelF^^ the fruits are used in folk remedies for +indurations of the limbs. The thick root is used in African folk remedies for hematuria, in +some cases due to bilharzia. According to Boulos,"*^ the resin from the tree, diaphoretic and +diuretic, is recommended both for tapeworm and for the bites of poisonous animals. The +fruits are astringent and anthelmintic. Breads made from the fruit have been recommended +in fluxes. The beverage made from the fruits is recommended, at least around Kharga, for +174 Handbook of Nuts +strenghtening the heart and for gastroenteritis. Mixed with date infusion, the doum is rec­ +ommended for febrile conditions on the Sahara. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the dried nut contains 395 calories, 5.7 to 6.2 g H2O, 2.4 to +5.0 g protein, 4.9 to 8.0 g fat, 6.5 to 11.0 g fiber, 1.9 to 5.4 g ash, 121 to 168 mg Ca, +and 170 to 281 mg P. GohP*® reports that whole nuts of the doum palm (91.4% DM) contain +(ZMB): 4.5% crude protein, 24.7% crude fiber, 3.6% ash, 2.6% fat, and 64.6% nitrogen- +free extract. Ground kernels (90.4% DM) from Somalia contain 9.0% CP, 7.3% CF, 2.8% +ash, 7.0% EE, and 73.9% NFE. Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) contains 420 calories, 4.1 g +protein, 6.8 g fat, 85.7 g total carbohydrate, 10.0 g fiber, 3.3 g ash, 153 mg Ca, and 240 +mg P.^^ According to Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,^^^ the nut contains 50% mannitol, which +when hydrolyzed with dilute acid furnishes 56 to 58% reducing sugars, 80% of which is +mannose. +Description — Palm to 10 m tall, the trunk branching dichotomously 1 to 2 or more +times. Leaves large, flabellate, with linear-lanceolate lobes, and numerous upward-curved +hooks on petioles. Flowers small and whitish, monoecious, the male spadices surrounded +by pointed male spathe-bracts, branches of female spadix being stouter. Fruits 5 x 5 cm, +yellowish-brown, globose-guadrangular, with strong fiber surrounding the hard seeds. +Germplasm — Native to the African and Middle Eastern Centers of Diversity, the doum +palm is said to tolerate drought and fire. The closely related H . indica Becc., often confused +with H. th ebaica, is probably the only germplasm native to the Middle East. +Distribution — Sometimes gregarious, forming dense stands along rivers in hot dry +valleys of tropical Africa, the Middle East, and western India, especially common in the +coastal regions of East Africa and in Eritrea. +Ecology — Flourishes in rich sandy loam. Growth, flowering, and fruiting are luxuriant +in moist places, but in dry places the fruits become small. With no hard data at hand, I +estimate that the palm is most at home in Subtropical to Tropical Thom to Moist Forest +Life Zones, tolerating even drier climates along water-courses. Johnson^^^ calls it a promising +desert palm for deserts and semideserts up to 600 m. Plants wind-polinated. Fmits dissem­ +inated by elephants, baboons, and donkeys, all of which may eat the fmits. Young leaves +are eaten by camels. +Cultivation — Cultivated as an ornamental curio, e.g., in India, the palm can be prop­ +agated by seed or off-shoots.^® +Harvesting — Plant parts harvested as needed. +Yields and economics — No data available. +Energy — Around Bomu, Africa, the leaves are used as fuel, especially in boiling down +salt. The sap can be used for alcohol production. Since this is a very destmctive process, +it has been outlawed in Eritrea and Kenya. The pod yields an active charcoal with high +decolorizing and absorbing power. +Biotic factors — Nuts and the beads made from them may be attacked by the scolytid +beetle, C occotrypes dactyliperda Fabr. Preventive measures are discussed in The W ealth o f +India +175 +INOCARPUS EDULIS Forst. (FABACEAE) — Tahiti Chestnut, Otaheite Chestnut, Poly­ +nesia Chestnut +Syn: Inocarpus fagiferus (P ark in son ) F osberg? +U ses — Nuts said to be edible after processing. Menninger^^ says what I have long +observed: almost any nut which is difficult to describe is said to taste like a chestnut. So +with this one. Seeds are sometimes allowed to ferment in pits in the ground. Natives of +Santa Cruz roast the fruits or slowly dry the unhusked fruit over a fire.^^^ More often they +are boiled or roasted in ashes. Some Samoans make purees from the cooked seeds. Said to +be the principle food of the mountaineers of Fiji. Cattle are said to eat the leaves.^^ Seeds +are strung as beads.Wood used in furniture. +F olk m ed icin e — Reported to be antidotal to fish poisoning, and useful for blood-shot +eyes, diarrhea, and hemorrhage.^* Mixed with the fern Drynaria to treat virulent gonorrhea +in Indonesia. Astringent bark is used for intestinal complaints in Malaya.Seed is boiled +in coconut milk for parturitional uterine hemorrhage. +C h em istry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 426 calories, 6.7 g protein, +7.9 g fat, 82.8 g total carbohydrate, 4.4 g fiber, 2.6 g ash, 0.46 mg thiamine, and 4 mg +ascorbic acid.®^ BurkilP^ reports the seeds (ZMB) analyze 7% fat, 10% albumens, 2.5% +ash, and 80% non-nitrogenous substances, mostly starch. +D escrip tion — Tree to 25 m tall, handsome; trunks usually deeply furrowed, commonly +fluted or buttressed; crown dense. Leaves simple, entire, large, oblong-lanceolate, short- +petioled, pinnately nerved, leathery; stipules very small, soon caducous. Flowers white, +cream, or yellow, fragrant, in axillary, simple or branched spikes resembling catkins when +young; bracts small, connate with rachis, somewhat pouched; bracteoles small; calyx tubular- +campanulate, bilabiate, membranous, irregularly 2- to 5-toothed; petals 4 to 6, usually 5, +subequal, imbricate in bud, linear-lanceolate, upper part crinkled; stamens twice the number +of petals, alternately long and short, the longer ones briefly joined to the petals; anthers +small, uniform, ovary subsessile or short-stalked, 1-, seldom 2-ovuled; style very short; +stigma oblique. Pod short-stalked, oblique-obovate, flattened, 2-valved, subdrupaceous, +leathery, indéhiscent, 1-seeded.® +176 Handbook of Nuts +Germplasm — Reported from the Australian and Polynesian Centers of Diversity, the +Tahiti chestnut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate swamps, waterlogging, and perhaps +some salt. (2n = 20.)^’^^° +Distribution — Native of eastern Malaysia and the Pacific, cultivated in the Malay +Peninsula. Cultivated successfully in Peradeniya and Singapore. Allen and Allen describe +it as ubiquitous throughout the South Pacific Islands.^ +Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Wet to Tropical Dry through +Moist Forest Life Zones, Tahiti chestnut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 +to 50 dm, annual temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0. Rosengarten says, “ It +prefers a hot, humid, tropical climate at low altitude, with well-distributed rainfall, and +thrives along the banks of streams and even in swamps.” Often a second-story component +of low-lying forest. +Cultivation — Rarely cultivated. In Santa Cruz, the seeds are sprouted in the shade and +transplanted. It is more gathered than cultivated. +Harvesting — Fruits start bearing at about age 8. In Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands, there +are two main harvests per year, and nuts are stored with the fibrous pods intact after cooking +in large earth ovens. +Yields and Economics — No data available. +Energy — No data available. +Biotic factors — Nitrogen-fixing nodules were not detected in Philippine specimens.^ +177 +JATROPHA CURCAS L. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Physic Nut, Purging Nut +Uses — According to Ochse,^^^ “ the young leaves may be safely eaten, steamed or +stewed.” They are favored for cooking with goat meat, said to counteract the peculiar smell. +Though purgative, the nuts are sometimes roasted and dangerously eaten. In India, pounded +leaves are applied near horses’ eyes to repel flies. The oil has been used for illumination, +soap, candles, adulteration of olive oil, and making Turkey red oil. Nuts can be strung on +grass and burned like candlenuts.^^^ Mexicans grow the shrub as a host for the lac insect. +Ashes of the burned root are used as a salt substitute.A gaceta, Dumag, and Batolos^ +conclude that it has strong molluscicidal activity. Duke and Wain^^ list it for homicide, +piscicide, and raticide as well. The latex was strongly inhibitory to watermelon mosaic +virus.Bark used as a fish poison.In South Sudan, the seed as well as the fruit is used +as a contraceptive.^®^ Sap stains linen and can be used for marking.Little, Woodbury, +and Wadsworth list the species as a honey plant. +Folk medicine — According to Harwell,the extracts are used in folk remedies for +cancer. Reported to be abortifacient, anodyne, antiseptic, cicatrizant, depurative, diuretic, +emetic, hemostat, lactagogue, narcotic, purgative, rubefacient, styptic, vermifuge, and vul­ +nerary, physic nut is a folk remedy for alopecia, anasarca, ascites, bums, carbuncles, +convulsions, cough, dermatitis, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, dyspepsia, eczema, erysipelas, +fever, gonorrhea, hernia, incontinence, inflammation, jaundice, neuralgia, paralysis, par­ +turition, pleurisy, pneumonia, rash, rheumatism, scabies, sciatica, sores, stomachache, sy­ +philis, tetanus, thmsh, tumors, ulcers, uterosis, whitlows, yaws, and yellow fever. +Latex is applied topically to bee and wasp stings.Mauritians massage ascitic limbs with +178 Handbook of Nuts +the oil. Cameroon natives apply the leaf decoction in arthritis.Colombians drink the leaf +decoction for venereal disease.Bahamians drink the decoction for heartburn. Costa Ricans +poultice leaves onto erysipelas and splenosis. Guatemalans place heated leaves on the breast +as a lactagogue. Cubans apply the latex to toothache. Colombians and Costa Ricans apply +the latex to bums, hemorrhoids, ringworm, and ulcers. Barbadians use the leaf tea for +marasmus, Panamanians for jaundice. Venezuelans take the root decoction for dysentery. +Seeds are used also for dropsy, gout, paralysis, and skin ailments.Leaves are regarded +as antiparasitic, applied to scabies; rubefacient for paralysis, rheumatism, also applied to +hard tumors.Latex used to dress sores and ulcers and inflamed tongues.Seed is viewed +as aperient; the seed oil emetic, laxative, purgative, for skin ailments. Root is used in +decoction as a mouthwash for bleeding gums and toothache. Otherwise used for eczema, +ringworm, and scabies.I received a letter from the Medical Research Center of the +University of the West Indies shortly after the death of Jamacian singer Robert Morley: +I just want you to know that this is not because of Bob Morley’s illness, why I am revealing +this . . . my dream was: this old lady came to me in my sleep with a dish in her hands; she +handed the dish to me filled with some nuts. 1 said to her, “ What were those?” She did not +answer. I said to her, “ PHYSIC N U T S.” She said to me, “ This is the cure for cancer.” +I found this Jamaican dream rather interesting. Four antitumor compounds, including +jatropham and jatrophone, are reported from other species of Jatropha.®^ Homeopathically +used for cold sweats, colic, collapse, cramps, cyanosis, diarrhea, and leg cramps. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 6.6 g H2O, 18.2 g protein, 38.0 +g fat, 33.5 g total carbohydrate, 15.5 g fiber, and 4.5 g ash.®^ Leaves, which show anti­ +leukemic activity, contain alpha-amyrin, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol, 7- +keto-beta-sitosterol, stigmast-5-ene-3beta, 7-alpha-diol, and stigmast-5-ene-3beta, 7 beta- +diol.^^"^ Leaves contain isovitexin and vitexin. From the drug (nut?) saccharose, raffinose, +stachyose, glucose, fructose, galactose, protein, and an oil, largely of oleic- and linoleic- +acids.^®^ Poisonous seeds can cause death due to phytotoxin, curcin. Curcasin, arachidic-, +linoleic-, myristic-, oleic-, palmitic-, and stearic-acids. +Toxicity — The poisoning is irritant, with acute abdominal pain and nausea about V2 +hour following ingestion. Diarrhea and nausea continue but are not usually serious. Depres­ +sion and collapse may occur, especially in children. Two seeds are strong purgative. Four +to five seeds are said to have caused death, but the roasted seed is said to be nearly innocuous. +Bark, fruit, leaf, root, and wood are all reported to contain HCN.^^^ Seeds contain the +dangerous toxalbumin curcin.®^ +Description — Shrub or tree to 6 m, with spreading branches and stubby twigs, with a +milky or yellowish rufescent exudate. Leaves deciduous, alternate but apically crowded, +ovate, acute to acuminate, basally cordate, 3- to 5-lobed in outline, 6 to 40 cm long, 6 to +35 cm broad, the petioles 2.5 to 7.5 cm long. Flowers several to many in greenish cymes, +yellowish, bell-shaped; sepals 5, broadly deltoid. Male flowers many with 10 stamens, 5 +united at the base only, 5 united into a colum. Female flowers borne singly, with elliptic +3-celled, triovulate ovary with 3 spreading bifurcate stigmata. Capsules 2.5 to 4 cm long, +finally drying and splitting into 3 valves, all or two of which commonly have an oblong +black seed, these ca. 2 x 1 +Germplasm — Reported from the Central and South American Centers of Diversity, +physic nut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate slope. There is an endemic species in +Madagascar, J. mahafalensis, with equal energetic promise. +Distribution — Though native to America, the species is almost pantropical now, widely +planted as a medicinal plant which soon tends to establish itself. It is listed, e.g., as a weed +in Brazil, Fiji, Honduras, India, Jamaica, Panama, Puerto Rico, and Salvador. +Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Very Dry to Moist through Subtropical Thom to Wet +179 +Forest Life Zones, physic nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 23.8 dm +(mean of 60 cases = 14.3) and annual temperature of 18.0 to 28.5°C (mean of 45 cases += 25.2).«2 +Cultivation — Grows readily from cuttings or seeds. Cuttings strike root so easily that +the plant can be used as an energy-producing living fence post. +Harvesting — For medicinal purposes, the seeds are harvested as needed. For energy +purposes, seeds might be harvested all at once, the active medicinal compounds might be +extracted from the seed, before or after the oil, leaving the oil cake for biomass or manure. +Yields and economics — According to Gaydou et al.,^®^ seed yields approach 6 to 8 +MT/ha with ca. 37% oil. They calculate that such yields could produce the equivalent of +2,100 to 2,800 € fuel oil per ha (see table under Energy Section). In Madagascar, they have +ca. 10,000 ha of purging nut, each producing ca. 2,400 € (or 24 h€) oil per ha for a potential +production of 240,000 h€.*®'^ +Energy — The clear oil expressed from the seed has been used for illumination and +lubrication, and more recently has been suggested for energetic purposes, one ton of nuts +yielding 70 kg refined petroleum, 40 kg “ gasoil leger” (light fuel oil), 40 kg regular fuel +oil, 34 kg dry tar/pitch/rosin, 270 kg coke-like char, and 200 kg ammoniacal water, natural +gas, creosote, etc. In their study, Gaydou et al.^®^ compare several possible energy species +with potential to grow in Malagasy. Oil palm was considered energetically most promising, +but this species was considered second most promising. +Crop Fuel Energetic +production production equivalent +(MXlia) (eiia) (kwlilia) +Elaeis guineenis 18—20 3,600-^,000 33,900—37,700 +Jatropha curcas 6—8 2,100—2,800 19,800—26,400 +Aleurites fordii 4—6 1,800—2,700 17,000—25,500 +Saccharum officinarum 35 2,450 16,000 +Ricinus communis 3—5 1,200—2,000 11,300—18,900 +Manihot esculenta 6 1,020 6,600 +Biotic Factors — A griculture H andbook N o. 165 lists the following as affecting Jatropha +curcas: C litocybe tabescens (root rot), C olletotrichum g loesporioides (leaf spot), and Phak- +opsora jatro p h ico la (rust)."^ +180 Handbook of Nuts +JESSENIA BATAUA (Mart.) Burret. (ARECACEAE) — Seje, Mil Pesos, Jagua, Pataba, +Pataua +S yn .: Jessenia polycarpa K arst. +U ses — Fruits provide an oil with a taste almost identical to that of the olive. “ There is +no question about pataua oil being an excellent edible oil.” ^^^ Ripe fruits are harvested and +piled up a day or so to encourage further ripening. They are then steamed in water, and the +pulp separated from the bony seed with a mortar. Brazilians may simple press out the oil. +The seeds are also consumed as food, and the milky residue from oil extraction, the “ yucuta’ ’, +is consumed as a beverage. The oil, used as a cooking or edible oil, is also used in medicine. +A chocolate-colored chicha is made by mashing the fruit, straining out the fruits, and adding +sugar. Wood is used for both bows and arrow-points. +181 +Table 1 +JE S S E N IA COMPARISON OF OIL OF +B A T A U A WITH OLIVE OIL +Jessenia bataua* Olive oil +Fatty acid samples {%) samples (% +Palmitic 13.2 ± 2.1 11.2 +0.6 ± 0.2 1.5 +Palmitoleic +Stearic 3.6 ± 1.1 2.0 +Oleic 77.7 ± 3.1 76.0 +Linoleic 2.7 ± 1.0 8.5 +0.6 ± 0.4 0.5 +Linolenic +Other 1.6 (range 0.2 — 4.6) +Values given as the mean standard deviation of +12 separate samples. +From Balick, M. J. and Gershoff, S. N ., Econ. Bot., +35, 261, 1981. Copyright 1981, The New York Botan­ +ical Garden. With permission. +Folk medicine — In the Guahibo area, the oil is used for asthma, cough, tuberculosis, +and other respiratory problems. Elsewhere it is used for bronchitis, catarrh, consumption, +flu, leprosy, and parturition.^®’^* At least four scientists have speculated that natives gain +weight, appear healthier with more endurance, and reported fewer respiratory infections +during the season of daily consumption of “ mil pesos.” Colombians consider the oil ver­ +mifugal.*®^ +Chemistry — I repeat Balick and Gershoff s^^ useful table (Table 1) comparing the oil +of bataua with olive oil, because olive oil has recently gotten press as very salubrious. Note +that the bataua, like the olive, contains about 80% oleic acid, a feature recently praised in +Lubrizol’s special high-oleic sunflower. Parenthetically, I add that Johnson*^^ reports much +lower oleic acid values, 0.48 to 40.67%. He puts the entire fruit’s oil content at 7.4%, the +mesocarp pulp at 18.2%, and the seed at 3%. If Lubrizol’s sunflower is good for the temperate +zone, this oil should be great for the tropical zone. I also repeat Balick and Gershoff’s^^ +Table 3. The data suggest that, though tryptophan and lysine were the limiting amino acids, +bataua protein is better than most grain and legume proteins.(see Table 2.) Balick and +Gershoff’s Table 4^^ compares the “ milk” of the seje with human milk, cowmilk, and +soybean milk, (see Table 3.) +Description — Unbranched palm to 15 (to 25) m tall, the mature trunk spineless (when +young, the trunk is covered with dark brown fibers and spines to 80 cm long). Leaves +pinnate, arching, 6 to 8 (to 10) m long, the rachis deep, canaliculate, vaginate at the base. +Leaflets alternate, lanceolate, acute, 40 to 75 mm wide. Spathe ca. 1 m long, woody, +terminating in an acute process. Spadix with 100 to 225 racemes, flowers cream-colored; +petals valvate. Panicles may contain 1,000 fruits, each weighing 10 to 15 g. There may be +two panicles per year. Fruits drupaceous, ellipsoid to ovoid, 2.5 to 4 cm long, deep purple +when ripe.^^’^®’^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, mil peso is +reported to tolerate waterlogging. Although taxonomists have tended to recognize at least +two species of Jessenia, Balick and Gershoff^ suggest that there is only one. Guajibo Indians +distinguish a type with whitish mesocarp and another with purplish or pinkish mesocarp. +Further, they recognize a slender variant with a reddish inner skin tissue.^® +Distribution — Distributed over much of the northern half of South America, including +Panama and Trinidad. +182 Handbook of Nuts +Table 2 +AMINO ACID ANALYSIS OF J E S S E N IA B A T A U A +Mg amino acid per g protein Amino acid Per cent of FAOAVHO +Amino acid component (mean ± standard deviation)* scoring pattern*’ scoring pattern +Isoleucine 47 ± 4 40 118 +Leucine 78 ± 4 70 111 +Lysine 53 ± 3 55 96 +Methionine 18 ± 6 +Cystine 26 ± 6 +Methionine ± cystine 44 ± 9 35 126 +62 ± 3 +Phenylalanine +Tyrosine 43 ± 5 +105 ± 7 60 175 +Phenylalanine -f tyrosine +69 ± 6 40 173 +Threonine +68 ± 4 50 136 +Valine +Tryptophan 9 ± 1 10 90 +Aspartic acid 122 +Serine 54 +Glutamic acid 96 +Proline 75 +Glycine 69 ± 4 +Alanine 58 ± 4 +Histidine 29 ± 4 +Arginine 56 ± 2 +“ Values represent mean ± standard deviation for 7 separate samples with the exception of tryptophan, for +which only 3 samples were analyzed. +^ FAO/WHO provisional amino acid scoring pattern. The scoring pattern represents an “ ideal protein’’ con­ +taining all the essential amino acids to meet requirements without excess (FAO/WHO, 1973). +From Balick, M. and Gershoff, S. N ., Econ. Bot., 35, 261, 1981. Copyright 1981, The New York Botanical +Garden. With permission. +Table 3 +COMPARISON OF “MILK’’ O F J E S S E N IA B A T A U A AND +OTHER MILKS +Approx. % calories from each component +Jessenia bataua +milk Human milk* Cow milk* Soybean milk* +Fat 55.3 45.9 49.8 37.6 +Protein l A 5.6 20.9 37.9 +Carbohydrate 37.3 48.5 29.3 24.5 +* USDA, 1963. +From Balick, M. J. and Gershoff, S. N ., Econ. Bot., 35, 261, 1981. Copyright 1981, +The New York Botanical Garden. With permission. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Dry (along river courses) to Rain through +Subtropical Dry to Rain Forest Life Zones, the mil pesos is estimated to tolerate annual +precipitation of 15 to 100 dm, annual temperature of 21 to 27°C, and pH of 4.5 to 7.5. +Once said to have formed solid gallery forests, but also occurring in inland forest up to +1,000 m. +183 +Cultivation — Though not normally cultivated, this palm should be given priority in +testing for plantation culture. “ It has never been cultivated, the minute amounts of oil that +have entered local native markets always having been extracted from wild tre e s .S e e d s +apparently take 20 to 40 days to germinate. +Harvesting — Trees may not fruit for 10 to 12 years.^^^ Fruits ripen from April to +November in Colombia, September to January in Brazil. Natives believed it bears heavier +in alternate years like so many of our native fruits.Too often the trees are felled to obtain +the fruits. But about two months after felling, the Guajibo also harvest the edible grubs of +the palm weevil.^^’^® +Yields and economics — Trees average 14 kg fruit per season.Schultes^^® says the +fruit clusters may weigh 30 kg yielding 1.5 to 3 kg oil. The high price of the similar olive +oil would suggest introducing this palm into cultivation. An effort towards this end has +been initiated by the Centro de Dasarollo Las Gaviotas in the Orinoquia of Colombia. +PIRB256 calculates that the oil can be produced for about $0.20/kg, 1/8 the cost of olive oil. +Many Latin Americans, nonetheless, import edible oils. Unfortunately, most of the Brazilian +stands are remote from Belem where there are large vegetable oil factories. “ The low yield +of oil, coupled with a lack of machinery adapted to processing this fruit, have resulted in +very limited production. +Energy — “lam not terribly optimistic on Jessenia as an oilseed fuel, as the oil is simply +too valuable to bum. In the world market, it (is) probably four times the price of palm oil, +and thus would be a waste to put in engines.Still, the Colombian natives extract 3 to 4 +bottles of oil from a raceme. +Biotic factors — No data available. +184 Handbook of Nuts +JU G LAN S AILANTHIFOLIA Carr. (JUGLANDACEAE) — Heartnut, Japanese or Siebold +Walnut +Syn.: Juglans sieboldiana Maxim., Juglans mirabunda Koidz., Juglans lavallei Dode, +Juglans sachalinensis (Miyabe et Kudo) Komar., Juglans allardiana Dode, +Juglans coarctata Dode +Uses — Heartnut is grown primarily for the kernels of the nuts, used in confectioneries +and pastries. Wood soft, not strong, of little value as lumber.^^® Wood dark-brown, not +easily cracked or warped, used for gunstocks, cabinet work, and various utensils in Japan. +Bark and exocarp of fruit used for dying.Good shade tree and often planted as an +ornamental. +Folk medicine — Reported to be antitussive and tonic. +Chemistry — Not data available. +Description — Tall erect tree, to 20 m tall, often grown as a low, wide-branching tree; +branches grayish-brown, densely glandular-pubescent when young; bark whitish. Leaves +large, petiolate, with 9 to 21 leaflets; leaflets ovate-oblong, 8 to 12 cm long, 3 to 4 cm +wide, abruptly acute to acuminate, appressed-serrulate, minutely stellate-pubescent above +on both surfaces when young, sessile and obliquely truncate at base; petioles and rachis +densely glandular. Staminate aments 10 to 30 cm long; pistillate aments 10- to 20-flowered, +pedunculate, densely brown pubescent with crisped hairs. Nut pubescent, with hard shell, +broadly ovoid to nearly globose, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, mucronate, rugose, with raised sutures. +Very variable. Flowers May; fruits summer to fall.^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity.Nuts vary consid­ +erably in size and roughness. Best-known varieties of common Siebold walnut are ‘DardinelT +and ‘English’. Heartnut {Juglans ailanthifolia var. cordiform is [Maxim.] Rehd. [Syn.: J. +cordiform is Maxim; J. su bcordiform is Dode]) has a cordate or cordate-ovoid, rather de­ +pressed shell, with relatively thin shell, is nearly smooth with a shallow groove on each +side, and has better shelling quality. ‘Fodermaier’ and ‘Wright’ are the best cvs, although +a great many selections have been made and named. Most named heartnuts were introduced +to the U.S. in the 1920s and 1930s. This cv is extensively cultivated in Japan and the U.S. +Hybrids with butternuts (Butterjap or buttemut-siebold) resemble the Siebold in branching, +leaves, and long racemes of nuts, but resemble the butternut in shape of nut, tree hardiness, +and resistance to serious diseases. Leaves larger than in the butternut. In breeding, its high +resistance to M elanconis fungus is transmitted to its hybrids with butternuts. The small size +of the nut has led to selections of clones. Siebold walnut is susceptible to butternut curculio +and to witches’ broom or bunch disease, the cause of which is unknown, but an insect- +transmitted virus is suspected. Hybrid ‘Grietz’ is better adapted to southern localities than +butternut; and ‘Helmick’ is hardier and very promising. Some cvs are not hardy as far north +as New York. Juglans aveliana Dode and J. notha Rehd. are alleged hybrids between J. +ailanthifolia Carr, and J. regia var. orientis (Dode) Kitam.^^® A number of cvs and hybrids +of heartnut have been developed which should prove useful for cross-breeding. Vigorous +hybrids, called “ buartnuts” have been produced by crossing heartnuts and butternuts. These +hybrids combine the butternut’s desirable kernel flavor and superior climatic adaptability +with the heartnut’s higher yield and better crackability.^®^ (2n = 32.) +Distribution — Native to Japan. Introduced to San Jose Valley of California about 1870; +now grown more extensively in northeastern U.S. and southern Ontario. Not worth planting +in pecan country, and not valued where Persian walnuts (7. regia) thrive. Unadapted to +extreme temperatures on Northern Plains and Rocky Mountain regions. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, heartnut is +reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.4 to 12.0 dm (mean of 4 cases = 8.3), annual +temperature of 14.7 to 25.0°C (mean of 4 cases = 18.1), and pH of 5.5 to 6.8 (mean of +185 +3 cases = 6.4).*^ Thrives on wide range of soils from clay to sand, and even makes rapid +and luxuriant growth on rather poor soil.^^^ Very common along streams and on wettish +plains.Bears early, and endures temperatures to — 40°C. However, it is more successfully +grown in areas from Nova Scotia, through Wisconsin and Iowa to southern Oregon and +British Columbia and south to Virginia, New Mexico, and northern Arizona.Able to +withstand winters not too cold for peaches. Grown throughout Atlantic coastal states. Pacific +northwest, and more protected northern areas.Foliage is sometimes injured and season’s +crop destroyed by late spring frosts. +C ultivation — Propagation by grafting, methods being the same as for butternut and +black walnut. Siebold grafts easily on its own seedlings and on butternut (7. cinered). It +also grafts easily on black walnut, but does not outgrow the stock. Also propagated by +layering, by bending low-growing branches to the ground and burying about 10 cm, leaving +remainder of branch protruding upright. Limb is cut half through on underside close to +trunk, firmly bound with cord to form a girdle, and treated with tree dressing. Bent-down +limb should be shaded from trunk to ground to prevent sunscald. Layers require about 2 +years to root. Grafted trees or rooted limbs are planted in the orchard about same distances +as other walnuts, about 20 m each way.^^* +H arvestin g — Fruits are borne in long racemes and in good locations, trees produce +prolifically. Nuts fall to ground in late summer and early fall, and should be harvested by +picking up the nuts as soon as they fall, to discourage infestation by maggots. Hulls are +removed and nuts dried for a few days, and then stored as for other walnuts. +Y ields and econ om ics — Heartnuts yield from 106 to 275 nuts per kg, and crack out +about one-fourth to one-third kg in kernels.Grown on a noncommercial basis in north­ +eastern U.S. and lower Ontario. +E n ergy — All walnuts are oilseeds, producing good timber, but their value is greater for +ends other than energetic ends. Yielding better than butternut, this might conceivably be a +better energy species. +B iotic factors — In some parts of New York State, a beetle burrows in the terminal +shoot. Because of Siebold walnut and heartnut’s high resistance to M elanconis fungus, it is +used for hybridizing with butternut, to which it transmits its resistance.Nearly decimated +in the U.S. in the early 20th century by walnut bunch disease.The A griculture H andbook +165"^ reports the following as affecting heartnut: M elanconis ju glan dis (canker, dieback), +M eloidogyne spp. (root knot nematodes), X anthom onas ju glan dis (bacterial blight). Also +listed are brooming disease (virus), rosette (physiogenic, (?) zinc deficiency), and witches’ +broom (cause unknown). +186 Handbook of Nuts +JU G LA N S CINEREA L. (JUGLANDACEAE) — Butternut, White Walnut, Oil Nut +Uses — Butternut grown primarily for its nuts, used fresh, roasted, or salted, in confec­ +tioneries, pastries, and for flavoring. Sugar may be made from the sap. Green husks of fruit +are used to dye cloth, giving it a yellow-to-orange color.Bark used by pioneers to make +a brown dye.^^ Narragansett Indians called the butternut ‘wussoquat’ and used the nuts to +thicken their pottage.Amerindians ate butternuts raw, cooked, or ground into a meal for +baking in cakes. Iroquois used seed oil for cooking and as a hair dressing. Nuts were +combined with maple sugar in New England to make maple-butternut candy.The early +settlers in New England found they could store the nuts for years as insurance against +starvation. The wood is coarse-grained, light-brown, turning darker upon exposure, used +for boat construction, boxes, buildings that come into contact with the ground, cabinet work, +carving, crates, fence posts, furniture, interior finishing of houses, and mill work. Used to +make some propellers for early windmills. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,pills made from the bark and poultices made +from the shucks are said to be folk remedies for cancer. Reported to be alterative, cathartic, +laxative, stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge, butternut is a folk remedy for cancer, dysentery, +epithelioma, liver ailments, mycosis, tapeworms, tumors, and warts.Butternut bark (the +inner bark of the root) is used for fevers and as a mild cathartic.Grieve**^ reports the +inner bark of the root, collected in May or June, is the best for medicinal use. Has been +recommended for syphilis and old ulcers; said to be rubefacient when applied to the skin. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 654 calories, 24.6 g +protein, 63.6 g fat, 8.7 g total carbohydrate, 3.0 g ash, and 7.1 mg Fe.^^ Smith^*® reports +the butternut to be 86.40% refuse, 4.5% water, 27.9% protein, 61.2% fat, 3.4% total +carbohydrates, 3.0% ash, and 3,370 calories per pound. Butternut bark (the inner bark of +the root) contains resinoid juglandin, juglone, juglandic acid, and an essential oil.^^® Roots +give off a toxin that poisons many other plants in the root area.^^^ +Description — Tree to 35 m, with straight trunk 0.6 to 1 m in diameter, round-topped; +bark smooth, light-gray on young branches, becoming light-brown and deeply fissured, to +2.5 cm thick; winter-buds terminal, 1.3 to 2 cm long, flattened, outer scales covered with +pale pubescence; axillary buds dark-brown with rusty pubescence, ovoid, flattened, rounded +at apex, 0.3 cm long. Leaves 35 to 75 cm long, with stout pubescent petioles, compound +with 11 to 17 oblong-lanceolate leaflets, 5 to 7.5 cm long, to 5 cm wide, finely serrate, +glandular, sticky, yellow-green and rough above, pale pubescent beneath; leaves turning +yellow or brown before falling in fall; hairy fringe present above leaf-scars. Flowers dioe­ +cious, staminate flowers in thick aments to 1.2 to 5 cm long, calyx 6-lobed, light-yellow +to green, puberulent on outer surface; bract rusty-pubescent, acute at apex, stamens 8 to 12 +with nearly sessile dark-brown anthers, slightly lobed connectives; pistillate flowers in 6- +to 8-flowered spikes, constricted above the middle, coated with sticky glandular hairs, +stigmas red, about 1.3 cm long. Fruits in drooping clusters of 3 to 5, obscurely 2- or 4- +ridged, ovoid-oblong, covered with rusty, clammy hairs, 3 to 6 cm long with thick husk; +nut elongated, ovoid, deeply ridged with 4 prominent and 4 less-prominent ribs, light-brown, +2-celled at base, 1-celled above the middle; kernel white to cream, sweet, very oily, soon +becoming rancid. Flowers April to June; fruits fall.^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the North America Center of Diversity, butternut, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, fungus, limestone, poor soil, slope, and weeds. +Cvs have been selected with excellent shelling qualities, some of them now being grown +are ‘Kenworthy’, ‘Kinneyglen’, ‘Buckley’, ‘Helmick’, ‘Craxezy’, ‘Henick’, ‘Johnson’, +‘Sherwood’, ‘Thrill’, and ‘Van der Poppen’. x ju glan s quadrangulata Rehd., a natural +hybrid between7. cinerea and7. regia, occurs occasionally in eastern Massachusetts. Hybrids +between butternut (7. cinerea) and heartnut (7. ailanthifolia) have appeared in the U.S.^^^ +187 +‘Aiken’ was the first grafted butternut available.Grafted cv ‘Deeming’ reported to bear +“ when it is two feet high’’.^*° (2n = 32.) +Distribution — Native to eastern North America, from southern New Brunswick to +Ontario, Michigan, southern Minnesota, and South Dakota, south to eastern Virginia, central +Kansas, and northern Arkansas, and in the mountains to northern Georgia, Alabama, and +western Tennessee. Occasionally cultivated elsewhere. Most abundant northward. +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Warm Temperate Dry +Forest Life Zones, butternut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.4 to 12.3 dm +(mean of 8 cases = 8.6), annual temperature of 8.4 to 18.0°C (mean of 8 cases = 12.1°C), +and pH of 4.9 to 7.2 (mean of 7 cases = 6.2).®^ Thrives in rich, moist soils near banks of +streams, on low rocky hills, as well as in forests, along fences, and road-sides. However, +it cannot be depended upon as an ornamental planting. Succeeds fairly well on poor upland +soils, but thrives best on fertile, slightly acid or neutral soils with good drainage. Hardiest +of any of the northern nuts, but short-lived under some conditions, apparently due to fungus +disease.Hardy to Zone 3.^"^^ +Cultivation — Trees in the forest and along road-sides develop from natural dispersal of +nuts. When cultivated, nuts or small trees can be planted. To assure viability, seeds should +not be more than a few years old. Plant where tree is to grow, in spring or fall, burying +about 2.5 cm in the ground. Fall-planted nuts should be well protected from nut-hunting +squirrels. Spring-planted nuts should be planted as early as possible, so they can be frozen +in the ground a few times. Nuts may be stored in freezer a few days before planting to +insure sprouting. Mid-summer sprouting seedlings grow rapidly, possibly reaching 1 m by +summer’s end. Plant 10 to 12 m apart for nut production; 5 m apart for timber production. +Generally takes 10 years from planting to first harvest; the first crop should be a big one.'^^ +Trees are usually grafted either on seedling butternut or black walnut stocks. Black walnut +stocks are reported to give earlier bearing trees. Butternut is a rather rapid-growing tree; +however, it begins to deteriorate when it reaches medium size. Trunks of older trees are +usually hollow. Otherwise, it requires about the same care and cultivation as other nut +trees.Ashworth^® reports that it is difficult to graft, possibly due to high sap pressure and +abundant sap flow in the spring. +Harvesting — Nuts are harvested by picking them up from the ground after they have +fallen in early to late fall. Husk is removed and nuts are allowed to dry for a few weeks by +spreading them one deep on a warm attic floor, a greenhouse bench, a sunny garage floor, +etc. Should be stirred up occasionally so they dry thoroughly. Store in a well-ventilated, +dry, cool, squirrel-proof place. Kernels are removed by cracking nuts. A hammer and anvil +or a block of hard wood seems to be the best cracking method. Another method is to cover +the nuts with hot water and soak them until the water cools. They will crack easily and +meats come out intact. Kernels may be stored dried, salted, or frozen until used.^^® +Yields and economics — Yield data for this species are usually included with other native +and cultivated walnuts. Kernels of butternut are harvested along with other walnuts and sold +salted or variously packaged.Two billion board feet of butternut lumber was reported to +be cut in 1 year in 1913. Production in 1941 was ca. 920,000 board feet. West Virginia, +Wisconsin, Indiana, and Tennessee have been the leading states in production of butternut +lumber. West Virginia mills shipped ca. 250,000 board feet to North Carolina furniture +plants in 1963. In 1960, the total veneer production was ca. 4 billion square feet; in 1965, +ca. 14 billion square feet face veneer was shipped. Butternuts are less important commercially +than black walnuts. +Energy — Both timber and seed oils could be used for energy, but they are, at the +moment, probably more suitable for other ends. This species is said to yield less than J. +ailanthifolia. +Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack butternut: Actinothecium +188 Handbook of Nuts +juglandis, Botryosphaeria ribis, Cercospora juglandis, Cylindrosporium sp., Fusarium av- +enaceum, Gnomonia leptostyla, Marsonia juglandis, Melanconis juglandis, Microstroma +brachysporum, M. juglandis, and Nectria galligena. Trees are attacked by Witches’ broom, +the cause of which is unknown. The nematodes Caconema radicicola and Meloidogyne sp. +have also been isolated from the tree.*^^’^^* +189 +JUG LAN S HINDSII Jeps. ex R.E.Sm. (JUGLANDACEAE) — California or Hind’s Black +Walnut +Syn.: J u g la n s californ ica var. h in d sii Jeps. +Uses — Kernels of nuts edible, of good quality, but small, used for confectioneries, +pastries, and roasted or salted nuts. Wood hard, coarse-grained, dark-brown, often mottled, +with pale thick sap wood. Often cultivated in California as street and shade tree.^"^^ +Folk medicine — No data available. +Chemistry — No data available. +Description — Deciduous, round-topped tree 10 to 20 m tall, occasionally to 25 m, with +erect, unbranched trunk 3.3 to 13 m, 30 to 60 cm in diameter; bark strong-scented, gray- +brown, smoothish, longitudinally fissured into narrow plates; branches pendulous; branchlets +villose-pubescent, reddish-brown, lenticels pale. Leaves 22 to 30 cm long, alternate, com­ +pound; petioles and rachis villose-pubescent; leaflets 15 to 19, thin, 6 to 10 cm long, 2 to +2.5 cm wide, ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, long-pointed, often slightly flacate, margin +serrate, base rounded cuneate to cordate, upper surface puberulous while young, becoming +bright-green and glabrous, lower surface with tufts of hairs and villose-pubescent along +midrib and primary veins. Staminate flowers in slender glabrous or villose aments 7.5 to +12.6 cm long, calyx elongated, covered with pubescence, 5- or 6-lobed, stamens 30 to 40, +with short connectives bifid at apex; pistillate flowers oblong-ovoid, thickly covered with +villose-pubescence about 0.3 cm long. Fruit globose, 3 to 5 cm in diameter, husk thin, dark- +colored with soft pubescence; nut nearly globose, somewhat flattened at ends, faintly grooved +with remote longitudinal depressions, shell thick; seed small and sweet. +Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, Hind’s black +walnut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH.^^ In California, natural hybrids are +known between this walnut and Juglans nigra; also a hybrid ‘Paradoxa’ (J. hindsii x J. +regia) has been produced artificially. J. hindsii var. quercina Sarg. (7. c a lif ornica (var.) +quercina Babcock) has leaves with 1 to 5 leaflets, usually 3, short-stalked or sessile, broadly +ovate to oblong, obtuse or emarginate, serrate or entire, 1.3 to 5 cm long. (2n = 24.)^^^ +Distribution — Native to Coastal region of central California. Sometimes cultivated in +California, eastern U.S., and Europe. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Thom to Dry Forest Life Zones, Hind’s black +walnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1 to 6.6 dm (mean of 2 cases = +4.9), annual temperature of 12.7 to 14.7°C (mean of 2 cases = 13.7), and pH of 6.8 to +8.2 (mean of 2 cases = 7^).^^ In natural habitats, trees are found along streams and rivers. +Trees not suitable for lawn-planting because rootstock is very susceptible to crown rot +(Phytophthora cactorum ), especially if given frequent summer irrigation. +Cultivation — Trees used as stock for Persian walnut (7. regia), top-worked high to +provide butt logs for walnut timber. +Harvesting — Fruit gathered when ripe in fall. Treated like other walnuts. +Yields and economics — Valued mostly as a shade or street tree in California, and as +stock on which to graft varieties of Persian walnut (7. regia). Butt logs 45 cm in diameter +bring about $200 each.^^® +Energy — Endangered or threatened species are not recommended as energy species. +However, if abundant in cultivation, this species could serve as a high-priced oilseed and +firewood, though the fmit and timber could find better uses. +Biotic Factors — Trees are resistant to oak root fungus, but particularly susceptible to +crown rot {P hytophthora cactorum ). The following are also reported as affecting this species: +C acopaurus epacris, C ylindrosporium ju g la n d is (leaf spot). M icrostrom a ju glan dis, Xan- +thom onas ju glan dis (bacterial blight). Also reported are Black-line (girdle-graft incompat­ +ibility) and Little leaf (zinc deficiency)."^ +190 Handbook of Nuts +JUGLANS NIGRA L. (JUGLANDACEAE) — Eastern Black Walnut +Uses — Black walnut is one of most valuable natural forest trees in the U.S. The nuts +furnish a food product, used mainly for flavoring baked goods, pastries, and confectioneries. +The wood has good texture, strength, and is coarse-grained, very durable, of a rich dark- +brown color with light sapwood; used in cabinet-making, gun-stocks, interior finishes of +houses, furniture, air-planes, ship-building. Wood is also easy to work, resistant to destruc­ +tive fungi and insect pests. Woody shells on fruits are used to make jewelry. Green fruit +husks are boiled to provide a yellow dye. Trees are used for shade and ornamentals. +Folk medicine — The bark and leaves are considered alterative, astringent, detergent, +laxative, and purgative. They are used for eczema, herpes, indolent ulcers, scrofula. The +unripe fruit is sudorific and vermifugal, and used for ague and quinsy, and is rubbed onto +cracked palms and ringworm. Oil from the ripe seeds is used externally for gangrene, leprosy, +and wounds. Burnt kernels, taken in red wine, are said to prevent falling hair. Green husks +are supposed to ease the pain of toothache. Indians used the root bark as a vermifuge. +Macerated in warm water, the husks and/or leaves, are said to destroy insects and worms, +without destroying the grass. Insects are said to avoid the walnut; hence it is often used as +a poor man’s insect repellent. Rubbed on faces of cattle and horses, walnut leaves are said +to repel flies. The roots and/or leaves exude substances which are known to inhibit ger­ +mination and/or growth of many plant species. All parts of the plant contain juglone, which +inhibits other plant species. Juglone has antihemorrhagic activity. +191 +Chemistry — The genus Juglans is reported to contain the following toxins: folic acid, +furfural, inositol, juglone, nicotine, and tryptophane.^^ Juglone has an oral LD50 of 2500 +|xg in mice. Chloroform is said to constitute a large part of the essential oil of the leaves. +Per 100 g, black walnut contains 3.1% water, 628 calories, 20.5 g protein, 59.3 g fat, 14.8 +g total carbohydrate (1.7 g fiber), 2.3 g ash, a trace of Ca, 570 mg P, 6 mg Fe, 3 mg Na, +460 mg K, 3(X) lU Vitamin A, 0.22 mg thiamine, 0.11 mg riboflavin, and 0.7 mg niacin. +Description — Tree up to 33 m tall, occasionally to 50 m, and often 100 years old; trunk +straight, often unbranched for 20 m, 1.3 to 2 m in diameter; branches forming a round- +topped crown, mostly upright and rigid; branchlets covered at first with pale or rusty matted +hairs, and raised conspicuous orange lenticels; bark 5 to 7.5 cm thick, dark-brown tinged +red, deeply furrowed with broad rounded ridges; twigs light-brown with channeled pith; +terminal bud as broad as long; no hairy fringe above leaf-scar; leaves compound, deciduous, +30 to 60 cm long, petioles pubescent, with 13 to 23 leaflets; leaflets 7.5 to 8 cm long, 2.5 +to 3 cm wide, long-pointed, sharply serrate, slightly rounded at base, yellow-green, thin, +glabrous above, soft-pubescent beneath, turning bright-yellow in fall before falling; staminate +aments thick, 7.5 to 12.5 cm long, compact, not-stalked, single; calyx 6-lobed, lobes +concave, nearly orbicular, pubescent on outer surface, its bract nearly triangular with rusty +brown tomentum; stamens 20 to 30, in many series, connectives purple, truncate, nearly +sessile; pistillate aments in 2 to 5-flowered spikes, bracts with pale glandular hairs, green, +puberulous, calyx-lobes ovate, acute, puberulent on outer surface, glabrous or pilose within; +fruit solitary or in pairs, globose, oblong or pointed at apex; husk yellow-green or green, +smooth or roughened with clusters of short pale articulate hairs, 3 to 5 cm in diameter, +indéhiscent; nut oval, oblong or round, rough or sculptured, 3 to 3.5 cm in diameter, dark- +brown tinged red, 4-celled at base, slightly 2-celled at apex; kernel sweet, soon becoming +rancid. (2n = 32.) Flowers April to May; fruits at frost in fall.®^’^^^ +Germplasm — At present, nearly 100 varieties of black walnuts have been selected and +named. Many can be propagated to order, or scions may be obtained for grafting upon +established stocks. Varieties or cultivars differ in hardiness, response to length of growing +season, summer heat, resistance to diseases and susceptibility to insect damage. ‘Thomas’ +is the most cultivated variety in New York; ‘Synder’ and ‘Cornell’ have good cracking +quality for northern areas; ‘Wiard’, for Michigan; ‘Huber’ and ‘Cochrane’, for Minnesota; +‘Sparrow’, ‘Stambaugh’, and ‘Elmer Myers’ are all good in parts of the South; ‘Ohio’ and +‘Myers’ are good in north central areas. Natural hybrid, x Juglans intermedia Carr (7. +nigra x J. regia) has been recorded in the U.S. and Europe. In California, ‘Royal’ (7. +nigra X 7. hindsii) has been artificially produced. Reported from the North American Center +of Diversity, walnut is reported to be relatively tolerant to disease, drought, fire, frost, +fungi, high pH, heat, insects, limestone, slopes, smog, and weeds. +Distribution — Grows naturally in 32 states and in southern Ontario, Canada; most +abundant in Allegheny Mountains to North Carolina and Tennessee. Occasionally cultivated +as an ornamental in eastern U.S., western and central Europe. Planted in Europe for timber. +Ecology — Wind pollinated, walnut may play a small role in hay fever. Suited to rich +bottomlands and fertile hillsides from lower Hudson Valley southward, walnut will grow a +few hundred miles outside its natural range, but may not bear nuts. Seedling trees mature +fruit rather generally throughout area with a growing season of about 150 days and an average +summer temperature of 16.5°C. Best suited to deep, rich, slightly acid or neutral soil, with +good drainage, but will not succeed on infertile upland soil or on soils with poor drainage. +Reliable indicators for suitable land are good stands of white oak and tulip popular, or where +com grows well. Because trees have a deep tap-root, they are drought-resistant. Black walnut +is reported from areas with annual precipitation from 3 to 13 dm (mean of 19 cases = 9), +annual temperature from 7 to 19°C (mean of 19 cases = 11), and pH from 4.9 to 8.2 (mean +of 15 cases = 6.3).®^’^^® +192 Handbook of Nuts +Cultivation — Improved varieties do not come true from seed, hence, propagation is by +grafting scions (twigs) from trees of desired varieties onto main stems of 2- to 3-year old +native seedlings. Scions develop crowns that bear nuts of their own variety. As there is little +information available to indicate the best varieties for different localities, local nurseries +should be consulted as to the best for a given locality. Trees are self-fertile, but the sequence +of male and female blooming, called dichogamy, can and often does minimize chances of +a tree shedding pollen on its own pistils. In different trees pollen may be shed before the +receptivity period of female flowers, or at same time, or after pistil receptivity. For greatest +possible nut production, plant trees of 2 or more varieties, as different varieties have over­ +lapping pollen-receptivity periods and can pollinate each other. Young plants are best trans­ +planted in early spring, at which time new roots will grow rapidly to replace those lost in +transplanting. In the South, young trees may be planted in fall or winter. For nut production, +trees are spaced 20 m apart. For trees up to 2.3 m tall, dig hole 0.6 m deep and 1 m wide. +Place tree at same depth in hole as it stood in nursery and spread out roots well. Fill hole +with topsoil and firm down soil. Form a basin around edge of hole and soak soil immediately. +Black walnuts require large quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus. Apply mixed fertilizer +(5-10-5 or 10-10-10) each year under tree branches when buds begin to swell in early spring. +Use rates of 450 g/year of 5-10-5 fertilizer, or 230 g/year for 10-10-10, per tree. Do not +use during first year, because of danger of injuring roots. In strongly acid soils, apply lime +to change pH to 6 or 6.5. Do not over-lime, as this makes zinc in soil unavailable to tree. +Soils east of Mississippi River are often deficient in magnesium, so crushed dolomite +limestone is used to correct this condition and reduce acidity of soil. Prune any suckers that +come from below graft on trunk. In orchards, trees over 15 years old may be interseeded +with grasses and legumes, and animals may be turned in to pasture, as they will not damage +older trees. All black walnuts tend to bear heavy nut crops every second year. No cultural +practices have been developed to offset this type of alternating. Some trees bear every year, +while others bear every third year. Others mainly react to climatic conditions with no pattern. +In the U.S. growing seasons are divided into 3 zones: North of Mason-Dixon Line, 140 to +180 days; south to North Carolina, northern Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and +Oklahoma, 180 to 200 days; south of that, 220 to 260 days. Varieties are selected for each +area. When trees bearing fruits of exceptional quality are found, they are propagated and +cultivated for nut production in that area.^^^ +Harvesting — Nuts are harvested from native trees as well as from improved selections +and cultivars. Fruit ripens in one season, usually by late September or early October. Most +production is from wild trees growing on non-crop land, and these represent the main +commercial source of kernels for today’s market. Nuts should be harvested as soon as they +fall, in order to get light-colored kernels with mild flavor. Leaving them on ground causes +some discoloration of kernel. Hulls of native trees are thick and heavy, whereas those of +Thomas’ and ‘Ohio’ have thinner hull, those of ‘Myers’ being thinnest of all. Hull may be +mashed and removed by hand, or by mechanical devices. After removing the hulls, nuts +should be washed thoroughly and spread out to dry in direct sunlight. Drying takes 2 to 3 +weeks; nuts can then be stored in a cool, dry place until needed. Nuts are cracked and +kernels removed for use.^^® +Yields and economics — Although Duke®^ reported yields of 7.5 MT seeds, this is +probably highly optimistic. Elsewhere it is said that 95% of the wild black walnut seeds are +empty or aborted. Perhaps yields could be as high as 2.5 MT/ha under intensive management, +which is attainable in the commercial walnut, Juglans regia. Selections are made based on +weight of nuts. Trees may bear at rates of 7,500 seed per ha. Nuts from wild trees weigh +about 17 g (27 nuts per lb); for selected varieties, weights vary from 15 to 30 g; those 20 +g or over are: ‘Michigan’ (20); ‘Grundy’, ‘Monterey’, ‘Schreiber’ and ‘Thomas’ (21); +‘Victoria’ (22); ‘Hare’ (23); ‘Pinecrest’ (25); and ‘Vandersloot’ (30). ‘Thomas’, ‘Ohio’ and +193 +‘Myers’ begin bearing nuts in second or third year after planting, while native trees usually +do not begin to bear until about 10 years after planting. In 5 to 6 years, these three varieties +bear about one-fourth bushel of nuts; at 15 to 20 years of age, the first two bear 2 bu of +nuts, ‘Myers’ about 1 bu, and native trees about V4 bu. Lumber trees yield about 1150 board +feet at 76 years old. Nut shelling industry is centered in and around Arkansas, Kansas, +Kentucky, Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee, West Virginia, and Virginia. Because of the +scarcity of trees and the long growing period required to get wood, walnut lumber is not in +great demand as it used to be. More frequently grown in Europe for lumber. Walnuts are +grown in the U.S. for nuts and ornamentation. In the U.S. the following are said to deal in +walnut oil: Main Pure Food Company (13660 S. Figueroa, Los Angeles, California) and +Tunley Division, Welch, Home and Clark Co. (1000 S. 4th Street, Harrison, New Jersey) +Well-formed trees will yield lumber worth thousands of dollars. +Energy — Oil contents of the seeds run about 60%, suggesting that if the walnut yields +of 7.5 MT/ha were attained, there might be as much as 4.5 MT oil there. Hulls and exocarp +might be used to fuel the processing, as the value of the timber improves with age (one tree +commanded $35,0(X) at an Ohio auction). Prunings and culls, as well as fallen and dead +limbs, might about to 5 MT/ha/year. +B iotic factors — Walnut anthracnose is most serious disease to native trees. ‘Ohio’ is +resistant to this disease; ‘Myers’ is less resistant. Disease over-winters in fallen leaves and +reinfects new leaflets in mid-May until mid-June, often defoliating entire trees. Many nuts +are empty or contain blackened, shriveled kernels. Bunch disease, of which the cause and +means of spread are unknown, stunts growth of the tree and lowers nut production. The +most serious insect pests are walnut lace bug, curculios, walnut husk maggot, walnut cat­ +erpillar and fall web-worm. Serious damage may also be caused by leaf-eating caterpillars, +scales, aphids and twig girdlers. County agricultural agents should be consulted for measures +to control these in a particular area.^^® Nematodes include M eloidogyne sp., P ratylenchus +cojfeae, P . p ra ten sis, and P. vulnus.^^^ The following are reported in A gricu ltu re H an dbook +165"^ as affecting Juglans nigra: B otryosph aeria ribis, C ercospora ju g la n d is (leaf spot), +C ladosporium sp. (? scab), C. pericarpiu m , C ylindrosporium ju g la n d is (leaf spot), C ytospora +sp. (canker), C. albiceps, P om es igniarius, G nom onia leptostyla (anthracnose, leaf spot, +leaf blotch), M eloidogyne spp. (root knot nematodes). M icrostrom a ju g la n d is (downy spot, +white mold), N ectria ditissim a, P h leospora m ultim aculans (leaf spot), P horandendron fla - +vescens (mistletoe), P hym atotrichum om nivorum (root rot), P hytophthora cinnam om i (collar +rot of seedlings), P ratylenchus m usicola, R habdospora ju glan dis, Sclerotium rolfsii (seedling +blight), S phaeropsis druparum , Stereum fa scia tu m , and X anthom onas ju g la n d is (bacterial +blight)."^ +194 Handbook of Nuts +JUGLANS REGIA L. (JUGLANDACEAE) — English Walnut, Carpathian or Persian Walnut +Uses — Principally valued as an orchard tree for commercial nut production. Nuts are +consumed fresh, roasted, or salted, used in confectioneries, pastries, and for flavoring. The +shells may be used as antiskid agents for tires, blasting grit, and in the preparation of +activated carbon. Ground nut shells are used as an adulterant of spices. Crushed leaves, or +a decoction are used as insect repellant and as a tea. Outer fleshy part of fruit, very rich in +Vitamin C, produces a yellow dye. Fruit, when dry pressed, yields a valuable oil used in +paints and in soap-making; when cold pressed yields a light-yellow edible oil used in foods +as flavoring. Young fruits made into pickles, also used as fish poison. Twigs and leaves +lopped for fodder in India. Decoction of leaves, bark, and husks used with alum for staining +wool brown. Wood hard, durable, close-grained, heavy, used for furniture and gun-stocks. +Tree often grown as ornamental. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,English walnuts are used in folk remedies +for aegilops, cancer, carbuncles, carcinoma, condylomata acuminata, corns, excrescences, +growths, indurations, tumors, warts, and whitlows, especially cancerous conditions of the +breast, epithelium, fauces, groin, gullet, intestine, kidneys, lip, liver, mammae, mouth, +stomach, throat, and uterus. Reported to be alterative, anodyne, anthelmintic, astringent, +bactericide, cholagogue, depurative, detergent, digestive, diuretic, hemostat, insecticidal, +laxative, lithontryptic, stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge, the English walnut is a folk remedy +for anthrax, asthma, backache, caligo, chancre, colic, conjunctivitis, cough, dysentery, +eczema, ejaculation, favus, heartburn, impotence, inflammation, intellect, intestine, intox­ +ication, kidney, legs, leucorrhea, lungs, rheumatism, scrofula, sore, syphilis, and worms. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 647 to 657 calories, 2.5 to 4.2 +g H2O, 13.7 to 18.2 g protein, 63.6 to 67.2 g fat, 12.6 to 15.8 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 +to 2.1 g fiber, 1.7 to 2.0 g ash, 92 to 106 mg Ca, 326 to 380 mg P, 3.0 to 3.3 mg Fe, 2 +to 3 mg Na, 450 to 536 mg K, 0.50 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.27 to 0.50 mg thiamine, +0.08 to 0.51 mg riboflavin, 0.7 to 3.0 mg niacin, and 0 to 5 mg ascorbic acid. Wealth of +India^^ also reports, per 100 g, 2.7 mg Na, 687 mg K, 61 mg Ca, 131 mg Mg, 2.4 mg Fe, +0.3 mg Cu, 510 mg P, 104 mg S, and 23 mg Cl, and 2.8 |jLg I (as well as Ar, Zn, Co, and +Mn). About 42% of the total phosphorus is in phytic acid; lecithin is also present. The +immature fruit is one of the richest sources of ascorbic acid, the skin with 1,090 mg/100 g, +the pulp with 2,330 mg. The leaves, also rich in ascorbic acid (almost 1% of the weight), +are rich in carotene (ca. 0.3% wet weight). Juglone is the active compound in the leaves; +also quercetin, cyanadin, kaempferol, caffeic acid, and traces of p-coumaric acid, hyperin +(0.2%), quercitrin, kaempferol-3-arabinoside, quercetin-3-arabinoside. The seed oil contains +3 to 7% palmitic, 0.5 to 3% stearic, 9 to 30% oleic, 57 to 76% linoleic, and 2 to 16% +linolenic acids. The oil cake, with 86.6% dry matter (DM), contains 35.0% protein, 12.2% +fatty oil, 27.6% carbohydrates, 6.7% fiber, 5.1% ash (digestible nutrients: 31.5% crude +protein, 11.6% fatty oil, 23.5% carbohydrates, and 1.7% fiber). The shells contain 92.3% +DM, 1.7% protein, 0.7% fatty oil, 31.9% carbohydrates, 56.6% fiber, and 1.4% ash.^®’®^ *®^ +Description — Deciduous, monoecious trees, 12 to 15 m tall (Payne vars.), 17 to 20 m +tall (‘Eureka’, ‘Placentia’, ‘Mayette’, ‘Franquette’), or rarely up to 60 m tall; bark brown +or gray, smooth, fissured; leaf-scars without prominent pubescent band on upper edge. +Leaves alternate, foetid, pinnate, without stipules; leaflets 15 to 24, opposite, 6 to 15 cm +long, ovate-oblong to ovate-lanceolate, acuminate; margin irregularly serrate, glabrescent +above, pubescent and glandular beneath. Flowers developing from dormant bud of previous +season’s growth; staminate flowers in axillary, pendulous aments 5 to 15 cm long, developing +1 to 4 million pollen grains each; flowers in axils of scales, with 2 bracteoles, perianth- +segments 1 to 4, stamens 3 to 40; pistillate flowers in clusters of 3 to 9, developing as many +nuts; in selected varieties not only terminal bud produces fruit, but all lateral buds on previous +195 +years growth also produce; perianth 4-lobed. Fruit 3.5 to 5 cm in diameter, globose or +slightly obovoid, pubescent; nut ovoid, acute, strongly ridged, not splitting. +G erm p lasm — Reported from the Eurosiberian and Central Asian Centers of Diversity, +English walnut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, high pH, heat, insects, low pH, +and slope. (2n = 32,36.)^^ Varieties are selected on basis of high heat tolerance, resistance +to walnut blight {X anthom onas ju glan dis), tolerance for winter cold, and yield and quality +of kernels. Most promising cvs are of Carpathian origin and have been introduced from +Poland; they withstand temperatures below those recorded in the the fruit belt of New York. +Recent superior cvs include: ‘Broadview’, ‘Schafer’, ‘Littlepage’, ‘McKinster’, ‘Metcalfe’, +‘Jacobs’, and ‘Colby’. Other varieties widely grown in the world include: ‘Marmot’, ‘Mey- +lanaise’, ‘Come’, ‘Gourlande’, ‘Mayette’, ‘Brantôme’, ‘Ashley’, ‘Glackner’, ‘Nugget’, +‘Poe’, ‘Franquette’, ‘Concord’, ‘Ehrhardt’, ‘Payne’, and ‘Waterloo’. Persian walnuts have +been hybridized with butternuts, black walnuts, and other European and Oriental walnuts. +Juglans regia var. orientis (Dode) Kitam. J. orientis Dode; J. regia var. sinensis sensu +auct. Japan (non DC.) is a widely cultivated Chinese tree, with glabrous leaves and bran- +chlets, leaflets 3 to 9, obtuse, entire, except in young trees, and nuts relatively thin-shelled. +D istrib u tion — Native to the Carpathian Mountains of eastern Europe, but often found +growing wild eastward to Himalayas and China. Widely cultivated throughout this region +and elsewhere in temperate zone of the Old and New World. Thrives in temperate Himalayas +from 1,000 to 3,000 m altitude. In North America, thrives as far north as New York State. +Introduced from Spain by way of Chile to California about 1867. In 1873 ‘Kaghazi’ was +introduced in northern California and a seedling ‘Eureka’ has become the important source +of our commercial cvs.^^® +E cology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Subtropical Thom to +Moist Forest Life Zones, English walnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1 +to 14.7 dm (mean of 25 cases = 8.4), annual temperature of 7.0 to 21.1°C (mean of 25 +cases = 12.0), and pH of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean of 21 cases = 6.4). Thrives on rich, sandy +loam, well-drained, slightly acid or neutral. Responds well to cultivation and fertilization. +In areas where hardiness is a problem, trees should not be forced into excessive vegetative +growth. Minimum temperature should not go below - 29°C. One fault of Carpathian walnut +is that it begins growth early in spring with the result that crop and foliage may be damaged +by late frosts. When fully dormant, trees can withstand temperatures from — 24°C to — 2 T C +without serious damage. French cvs may be more winter hardy. ‘Eureka’ is less hardy than +newer cvs being produced for northern California, Oregon, and higher altitudes. High summer +temperatures damage kernels, slightly at 38°C, severely at 40.5 to 43.5°C. Quite variable +resistance to heat among varieties. Reported from areas with pH 4.5 to 8.3, annual rainfall +3 to 15 dm, and annual temperature 7 to 19°C. Rains in late spring and summer increase +walnut blight infections. +C ultivation — Since trees are deep-rooted, soil should be fertile, well-drained, alluvial, +2 m or more deep, of medium loam to sandy or silt loam texture, and free of alkali salts, +especially excessive boron. Seedling trees show great variation as to hardiness, type of fruit +and fruitfulness. ‘Paradox’ hybrids, ‘Royal’ hybrids m d Juglans hindsii are used as rootstocks +for grafting Persian and Carpathian walnuts. Rootstock of Juglans regia may be used if oak +root fungus {A rm illaria m ellea) is absent in area. Persian walnuts have been grafted to +Chinese wingnut (P terocarya stenoptera) Selected varieties are best whip- or bark-grafted +or patch-budded on seedling trees, or top-worked on existing trees. Persian walnuts are +planted in the orchard from 10 to 20 m each way; however, many spacings are in use +depending on cv and cultivation methods. Intercropping young walnuts may be useful for +the first 5 to 10 years. Intercropping may be difficult because of irrigation, spraying, and +use of equipment for cultivation of the intercrop. Holes should be dug amply wide to +accommodate roots, planting no deeper than they were in the nursery. Roots should never +196 Handbook of Nuts +be allowed to dry out. Topsoil should be used to fill hole, firmly tamped around roots. Do +not transplant when soil is wet. Nut trees must have tops reduced or cut back, either before +or after planting, usually to about 1.5 to 2 m from ground level. Lower buds should be +suppressed so the upper ones will be forced to grow and make the framework of the tree. +Newly planted trees should be staked, either with a single stake driven close to the tree and +tying it to the stake, or driving three stakes equidistant, fastening tree to each with stout +cord so as not to injure bark. After trees are planted, they should be watched, and watered +during dry spells until established. When irrigated, a total of 2V2 to 5 acre feet of water per +acre should be applied throughout the year, including normal rainfall. The modified central +leader system of training young walnuts is recommended for western orchards, in which 4 +or 5 main framework branches spaced both vertically and horizontally are developed; the +first branch should be started no lower than 2 m from the ground. The trend is toward +heavier and more consistent pruning both in young and old trees; very fruitful new varieties +respond more readily than some of the older varieties. Standard method for applying zinc +to walnut trees is to drive zinc-bearing metal pieces or glazing points into outer sapwood +of trees. Other mineral deficiencies which must be corrected are iron, manganese, boron, +potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, and copper. +Harvesting — Pollination is often a problem, as Persian walnuts are monoecious, with +separate staminate and pistillate flowers in different parts of the same tree. Staminate catkins +are 10-15 cm long and produce 1-4 million pollen grains each. Sometimes freshly picked +catkins are put on paper in room at 2 rC and the shed pollen stored in desiccator at 0°C. +Then pollen is blown on trees by fan mounted on truck. Helicopters are sometimes used to +blow pollen over orchard. Under favorable conditions, the husks of nuts crack open and +adhere temporarily to twigs, allowing nuts to fall to the ground, usually between September +1 and November 7. Nut fall may be hastened by shaking the trees with long poles or a boom +shaker. During harvest period, nuts are picked up 3 or 4 times before the total crop has +matured and dropped. Nuts should not be allowed to remain on ground too long. Nuts are +washed, if dirty, and spread out in shallow trays with bottom slats spaced 1.5 to 2 cm apart. +Nuts should not be exposed to sun for entire day. Trays are piled up so as to permit ventilation +after nuts have become warm. Too-fast drying causes shell to crack and open. In large +orchards, a drying house is constructed for curing process. After curing and bleaching, nuts +are graded and packed for shipment. +Yields and economics — Newer cvs begin producing nuts in 5 to 6 years; by 7 to 8 +years, they produce about 2.5 tons of nuts per hectare. Orchards on relatively poor, unir­ +rigated mountain soil report 1.5 to 2.25 MT/ha; orchards in well-cultivated valleys, 6.5 to +7.5 MT/ha. A grown individual can yield about 185 kg, but 37 kg is more likely.In the +U.S., California is the major producing area, with about 129,400 acres producing 77,000 +tons nuts per year; Oregon is second with about 3,500 tons annually; the total valued at +about $32.3 million. About 60% of Persian walnuts are sold shelled. Lumber from large +trees may bring up to $1,500 per +Energy — If the walnut yields of 7,500 kg/ha®^ yielded all their 65% (63 to 67%) oil, +there is a potential oil yield of nearly 5 MT per year, a very worthwhile target, if attainable. +The green hulls have recoverable ascorbic acid content (2.5 to 5% of dry weight). Hulls +contain 12.2% tannin, bark contain 7.5%, leaf blades contain 9 to 11%. After extraction of +the vitamin C and tannin, the residues might be used for fuel or ethanol. Prunings from the +trees might contribute another 5 MT biomass per year. +Biotic factors — Seedlings are very susceptible to mushroom root rot, and Walnut girdle +disease ‘Blackline’ is thought to occur when certain horticultural varieties of Juglans regia +are grafted on rootstocks of Juglans hindsii and its hybrids, associated with graft incom­ +patibility. Fungi known to attack Persian walnuts include: A ltern arla nucis, A rm illaria +m ellea, A scoch yta ju glan dis, A spergillus fla vu s, A uricularia auricula-judae, A uricularia +197 +mesenterica, Cerrena unicolor, Cladosporium herbarum, Coniophora cerebella, Coprinus +micaceus, Coriolus tephroleucus, Cribaría violaceae, Cryptovalsa extorris, Cylindrosporium +juglandis, C. uljanishchevii, Cytospora juglandina, Cytosporina juglandina, C. juglandi- +cola, Diplodia juglandis, Dothiorella gregaria, Erysiphe polygoni, Eutypa ludibunda, Ex- +osporina fawcetti, Fomes fomentarías, F. igniarius, F. ulmarius, Fusarium avenaceum, F. +lateritium, Ganoderma applanatum, Glomerella cingulata, Gnomonia ceratostyla, G. Jug­ +landis, G. leptostyla, Hemitricia leiotyichia, Hypoxylon mediterraneum, Inonotus hispidas, +Laetiporus sulphureus, Lentinus cyathiformis, Ficea tenera, Marsonia juglandis, Melanconis +carthusiana, M. juglandis, Melanconium juglandis, M. oblongum, Melanopus squamosus, +Microsphaera alni, M. juglandis, Microstroma juglandis, Mycosphaerella saccardoana, M. +woronowi, Nectria appianata, N. cinnabarina, N. ditissima, Oxyporuspopulinus, Phelliunus +cryptarum, Phleospora multimaculans, Phoma juglandis, Phomopsis juglandis, Phoma jug­ +landis, Phyllactinia guttata, Phyllosticta juglandina, P. juglandis, Phymatotrichum omni- +vorum, Phytophthora cactorum, P. cinnamomi, P. citrophthora, Pleospora vulgaris, Pleurotus +ostreatus, Polyporus hispidas, P. picipes, P. squamosus, Polystictus versicolor, Rhizopus +nigricans, Stereum hirsutum, Trametes suaveolens, Tubercularia juglandis, T. vulgaris, +Verticillium albo-atrum. Bacteria attacking Persian walnut include: Agrobacterium tume- +faciens. Bacillus mesentericus. Bacterium juglandis. Pseudomonas juglandis, Xanthomomas +juglandis. Cuscuta pentagona also parasitizes the tree. The following nematodes have been +isolated from Persian walnut: Cacopauruspestis, Diplogaster striatus, Diplogaster coronata, +Ditylenchus intermedias, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. javanica, M. sp., Pratylenchus coffeae, +P. pratensis, P. vulnus, Rhabditis debilicauda, R. spiculigera, Tylolaimophorus rotundi- +cauda. Among the insect pests of this walnut are the following: Walnut Blister mite (Er- +iophytes tristriatus). Walnut aphid (Chromaphis juglandicola), Italian pear scale (Diaspis +piricola). Calico scale (Eulecanium cerasorum), Frosted scale (Parthenolecanium prui- +nosum). Walnut scale (Quadraspidiotus juglansregiae). Codling moth (Cydia pomonella). +Fruit tree leaf-roller {Archips argyrospila), Indian meal moth {Plodia interpunctella), Walnut +caterpillar {Dataña integerrima). Red-humped caterpillar (Schizura concinna). Walnut span +worm (Phigalia plumigeraria), and Walnut husk fly (Rhagolestis completa). +198 Handbook of Nuts +LECYTHIS MINOR Jacq. (LECYTHIDACEAE) — Coco de Mono +Syn: L ecyth is elliptica H.B.K. +Uses — These trees are cultivated for the nuts, which have a delicious flavor and possess +a high oil content. Small trees are highly ornamental. +Folk medicine — Duke and Wain^^ cite the species as antiasthmatic, depilatory, and +poisonous. +Chemistry — The seeds have been reported to be somewhat toxic, especially if eaten in +large quantities. Ingesting the nuts is known to cause loss of hair and nails, at least in +seleniferous areas. Though seeds taste agreeable, injestion may induce nausea, anxiety, and +giddiness. Dickson^^ attributes the temporary loss of hair and fingernails that he experienced +after eating 300 to 600 seeds of L. minor to toxic elements in the seeds. Throughout northern +Colomiba, L. minor is thought to be poisonous. Castaneda,however, feels they are +nontoxic. The toxicity of the seeds may depend upon the soils. Some evidence suggest that +toxic seeds come from plants found on soil high in selenium.Mori^^^ suggests that the +data suggesting toxicity in L. ollaria may in fact refer to this species. Without voucher +specimens, weTl never know. +Toxicity — Identified as a selenium-containing analog of the sulfur amino acid, cysta­ +thionine, the active compound has the following formula: HOOC-Ch(NH2)-CH2-Se-CH2- +CH(NH2)C00H.3^" +Description — Small to medium-sized trees, often branched from base when in open +habitats, 5 to 25 m tall, to 70 cm DBH, the crown dilated. Twigs gray, glabrous to pubescent. +Bark gray, relatively smooth when young, with deep vertical fissures when older. Leaf +blades ovate, elliptic, or oblong, 8.5 to 24.5 x 4.5 to 10 cm, glabrous, coriaceous, with +12 to 19 pairs of lateral veins; apex mucronate to acuminate, infrequently acute; base obtuse +to rounded, infrequently truncate, narrowly decurrent; margins usually crenulate to serrate, +infrequently entire; petiole 5 to 20 mm long, usually puberulous, infrequently glabrous. +Inflorescences racemose, unbranched, or once-branched, terminal or in axils of uppermost +leaves, the principal rachis 10 to 35 cm long, with 10 to 75 flowers, all rachises pubescent, +the pedicels jointed, 1 to 3 mm long below articulation, subtended by an ovate, caducous +bract 2 to 4 x 2 to 3 mm, with 2 broadly ovate, caducous bracteoles 3 to 6 x 3 to 4 mm +inserted just below articulation. Flowers 5 to 7 cm diameter; calyx with 6 widely to very +widely ovate, green lobes 6 to 11 x 6 to 9 mm; petals 6, widely obovate or less frequently +widely oblong to oblong, 27 to 42 x 14 to 25 mm, green in bud, usually white, less +frequently light-yellow at anthesis; hood of androecium dorsiventrally expanded, 20 to 23 +X 19 to 25 mm, with well-developed, inwardly curved, antherless appendages, the outside +of hood white or light-yellow, the appendages always light-yellow; staminal ring with 300 +to 410 stamens, the filaments 2 mm long, dilated at apex, light-yellow, the anthers 0.5 to +0.7 mm long, yellow; hypanthium usually pubescent, infrequently glabrous; ovary 4-locular, +with 3 to 6 ovules in each locule, the ovules inserted on floor of locule at juncture with +septum, the summit of ovary umbonate, the style not well differentiated, 2 to 4.5 mm long. +Fruits cup-like, globose or turbinate, 5 to 7 x 7 to 9 cm, the pericarp 7.5 to 11 mm thick. +Seeds fusiform, 2.4 to 3 x 1.3 to 2 cm, reddish-brown, with 4 to 6 light-brown longitudinal +veins when dried, the testa smooth, with cord-like funicle surrounded by fleshy white aril +at base."'"’"^’""5 +Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, coco de mono, +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate low pH.^^ Very closely related to another coco de +mono, Lecythis ollaria, found east of the Andes and also suspected to exhibit seed toxicity. +(X = 17.) +Distribution — Introduced at Mayaguez, P.R.; La Lima, Honduras: Summit, Panama; +and Soledad, Cuba. Ranges from the Maracaibo lowlands of Venezuela to the northern coast +199 +of Colombia from where it ascends the Magdalena and Cauca Valleys. This species most +often occurs in dry, open, somewhat disturbed habitats, where it grows as a small, much- +branched tree. However, it is also found in moister forests, especially along watercourses, +where it forms a handsome, single-trunked tree to 25 meters. +Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, coco de mono +is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.1 to 22.8 dm (mean of 3 cases = 15.1 dm), +annual temperature of 24.4 to 26.5°C (mean of 3 cases = 25.3°C), and pH of 5.0 to 8.0 +(mean of 3 cases = 6.6).^^ Thrives along rivers in tropical forests. +Cultivation — Trees are easily propagated from seeds, but never systematically culti­ +vated.^^® +Harvesting — Flowers most profusely from April to December and produces mature fruit +from December to February throughout its native range. At Summit Gardens, Panama, where +it is cultivated as an ornamental, this species flowers during the wet season from April to +November.Like Brazil nuts, these nuts are collected from native trees when ripe. Trees +may begin to bear fruit when only 2 m tall.^^® +Yields and economics — Formally, before 1968, nuts were distributed regularly, at least +locally in Honduras. +Energy — These relatively slow-growing trees and their prunings could serve as energy +sources. Annual leaf litter from another species of Lecythis was nearly 2 MT/ha/year.^^^ +Biotic factors — Probably pollinated by bees and disseminated by fruit bats as in Lecythis +pisonis. +200 Handbook of Nuts +LECYTHIS OLEARIA L. (LECYTHIDACEAE) — Monkey Pod, Monkey Pot, Olla de Mona +Uses — The Monkey Pot is grown and/or collected for the seeds, which are edible and +are the source of an oil used for illumination and for making soap. Sap may be mixed into +an agreeable drink. Wood is easy to split, strong, and polishes well. Resistant to insects, +termites, and barnacles, it is used for wharves, piles, sluices, and house-framing. Bark is +recommended for tanning. +Folk medicine — Oil extracted from the seeds is considered a powerful hemostat.'^^ +Latex of the pericarp is used by South American Indians as a depilatory. +Chemistry — Ingestion of the seed has associated with alopecia and selenium poisoning, +as manifested by acute intoxication, fever, diarrhea, and various neurological symptoms, +the active principle being the selenium analog of the sulfur amino acid cystathionine.*^ +While I might try the seeds were I suffering cancer or AIDS, there are enough toxicology +data to make me avoid the seeds as part of my regular diet. After prolonged exposure to +active extracts or the seeds, sacrificed guinea pigs exhibited hair growth inhibition, atrophy +and disappeamce of the sebaceous glands, marked atrophy of the epidermis, edema, and +intraalveolar hemorrhage of the lungs, necrotic foci of the liver and spleen, and intense +sinusoidal congestion of the adrenals.Such symptoms might also result from experimental +self-medication. +Description — Small-to-medium tree with warty branches; bark reddish-yellow, hard and +heavy; wood reddish-yellow to dark-brown, very strong. Leaves sessile or subsessile, al­ +ternate, chartaceous, ovate to oblong-ovate, apex acute to obtuse, base rounded to subcordate, +subserrate, the reticulate venation not prominent, 5.2 to 9 cm long, 2.5 to 5 cm wide. +Inflorescence in terminal spikes, with ovate deciduous bracts. Flowers variable; sepals 6, +oblong, uneven with rounded margins, concave, persistent; petals 6, larger than the sepals, +spathulate, subequal, oblong, to subrounded, concave, with a reflex margin, white. Capsule +201 +pot-shaped, brown, rounded, 3.5 to 6 x 5.6 to 8.2 cm, with a 6-lobed ring-shaped, obtuse +calycine ring; pericarp woody; seeds with brown covering and a yellowish oily meat.^^’^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, monkey pot, or +CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate limestone and low pH.^^ Some authors think this is +conspecific with L. minor. Prance and Mori,^^^ tabulating the differences, maintain them as +distinct. +Distribution — North-central Venezuela, east of the easternmost branch of the Andes, +west of the Paria Peninsula, and north of the Rio Orinoco. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Moist Forest +Life Zones, monkey pot is reported to tolerate precipitation of 9.1 to 22.8 dm (mean of 4 +cases = 13.3), annual temperature of 23.7 to 26.2°C (mean of 4 cases = 24.8°C), and pH +of 5.0 to 7.1 (mean of 4 cases = 6.4).^^ Usually a small tree in savanna-like environments, +sometimes to 20 m tall in more favorable environments. +Cultivation — Trees are easily propagated from seed, in nature probably disseminated +by bats. +Harvesting — Seeds harvested from wild trees as available. Extraction of oil said to be +carried out by local populations. +Yields and economics — Seed collected locally and used for oil or as a food, especially +by natives of northern South America. +Energy — I can only speculate about these tropical trees with no real yield data. With +breeding for dwarfing and improved reliability and quantity of yield, I think these trees +could yield 1 to 3 MT oil per ha. Prunings, fruit husks, and leaf litter could also be captured +for energy conversion. +Biotic factors — No pests or diseases reported on this plant. +202 Handbook of Nuts +LECYTHIS PISONIS Cambess. (LECYTHIDACEAE) — Sapucaia +Uses — Sapucaia nuts and paradise nuts are almost contradictory terms, paradise implying +a good exotic flavor, and sapucaia because, according to one interpretation, the nuts were +fed to chickens by Amazonian +Indians.Mori is of the opinon that sapucaia is the Tupi- +guorani name given to the fruit because of the wailing sound of the wind blowing across +the empty open fruits.Some connoisseurs consider them the finest of nuts. The kernels, +eaten raw or roasted, are occasionally used to make candies or cakes. An edible oil expressed +from the kernels is also used to produce soap and illumination. Since monkeys are fond of +the seeds, the empty pods, with lids removed, are baited with com to trap monkeys who +can get their open hands in but have trouble getting their closed hands out. The trees could +be widely planted, as they furnish fuel, food, timber, and are ornamental.Still they have +their detractions. Falling empty pods are dangerous to pedestrians. Trees are deciduous, so +leaves must be raked after they have fallen. The fleshy flowers are also messy. +Folk medicine — The oil is regarded as antipodriagic and cardiotonic. Water preserved +in the fmits for 24 hr is said to remove skin blemishes.While I find no anticancer data +for this species, I would not hesitate to eat the seeds of the seleniferous varieties if I had +cancer or AIDS. I might suffer from nausea and alopecia, side effects common with synthetic +chemotherapy. Some people trek to New York to visit with an M.D. (I. Revici) who has +“ anti-AIDS medications” based on synthetic combinations of selenium and fatty acids or +vegetable oils. I urge further testing of seleniferous Lecythidaceous fmits in the U.S. cancer +screening program. +Chemistry — Rosengarten^^^ suggests that the kernels contain ca. 62% fat and 20% +protein. Pereira^^^ says fmits contain 9% oil. Finding no more data on these Lecythis species, +I suggest that they might be comparable in composition to Brazil nuts in component fatty +acid percentages, i.e., ca. 15% palmitic-, ca. 5% stearic-, ca. 45% oleic-, and ca. 35% +linoleic. Selenium content might be predicted to vary with provenance. Nuts are said to get +rancid within a week or two.^^ +Description — Tree to 40 m tall, 1V2 m DBH, deciduous near the end of the dry season. +Leaves simple, alternate, entire, penninerved. Flowers large, attractive, yellow to lilac or +lavender or blue, sepals 6, petals 6, stamens numerous, ovary 4-locular. Pods 30 to 40 +seeded, operculate. Seeds wrinkled, irregularly oblong, ca. 5 cm long, more rounded than +Brazil nuts, lighter brown and with thinner shell. Kernels ivory white, with a creamy texture. +Mori and Prance,keenly aware of the taxonomic complexities of the group, list 10 +characteristics, the combination of which uniquely identifies the “ sapucaia group” : +1. Large trees (at maturity they are emergents) +2. Brownish bark with pronounced vertical fissures +3. Laminated outer bark +4. Deciduous leaves which are flushed shortly before or at the same time as the flowers +5. Leaves, flowers, and fmits which possess an unidentified compound that oxidizes +bluish-green when the parts are bmised +6. Hood of androecium flat with the proximal appendages anther-bearing and the distal +ones antherless +7. Pollen of the hood anthers turning from yellow or white to black after 24 hr +8. Short styles with an annular expansion towards the apex +9. Large, dehiscent, woody fmits +10. Seeds with a long cord-like funicle which is surrounded by a large fleshy aril +Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, sapucaia and +closely related species, show a rather general lack of tolerance to environmental extremes. +203 +Such narrow tolerances seem to be characteristics of rainforest species. As defined by Mori +and Prance,the sapucaia group consists of three species, in addition to L. piso n is (incl. +L. usitata): L. am pla (incl. L. costaricen sis) from Nicaragua to Colombia, L. lanceolata, +from Rio de Janeiro to Bahia, and L. zabucaja (incl. L. tum efacta), from Venezuela and +the Guianas disjunctly to Central Amazonia. Many of the data in the literature on sapucaia +may refer to one or the other of these. +D istrib u tion — Common in the coastal forests of eastern Brazil and Amazonia. +E cology — Estimated to range from Tropical Moist to Wet through Subtropical Dry to +Wet Forest Life Zones, sapucaia is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 12 to 42 +dm, annual temperature of 23 to 2 T C , and pH of 4 to 8. Said to occur in samll groups near +hilltops in forests. The ‘sapucaia’ group of L ecythis is not found at elevations over 800 m +or in the dryer savanna or caatinga habitats. They inhabit forests with around 20(X) mm or +more rainfall per year and in some areas tolerate moderate dry seasons of up to 6 months. +Nevertheless, this is a typical moist-forest group which provides a good example of the +effects of climatic and geological changes on the distribution and evolution of neotropical +lowland trees.T he annual leaf litterfall of a 10-year-old stand was estimated at 1,849 +kg/ha at Pau-Brasil Ecological Station, on oxisols (haplorthoxs) pH 4.5 to 5.5, annual +precipitation 13 to 14 dm, annual temperature 24 to 25°C with annual amplitude of 7 to +362 on the phenology and floral biology are treated by Mori et al.^^° Over 6 years +in Bahia, leaf fall was mostly from September to December, flowering in October and +November, and fruiting 7 months later in March and April (southern hemisphere). +C ultivation — Seeds could be planted in situ or in pots for transplant later. +H arvestin g — Said to start bearing when 8 to 10 years old, the seeds are largely harvested +from the wild, often by animals other than man. Bats are the dispersal agent. It is very +difficult for man to get the seeds before bats get them.^*^ +Y ield s and econ om ics — Rosengarten^®^ quotes estimates of 70 kg nuts per tree. None­ +theless, there are no large plantations, only a few small plantings in Brazil, the Guianas, +the West Indies, and Malaysia. The fact that the fruit is dehiscent, exposing the delicious +nuts to the nut-eating animals and birds, makes this much less attractive than its relative, +the Brazil nut, for commercial exploitation. Dwarfed cvs, which might be bagged for +protection from predators, might make the sapucaia a more attractive commercial possiblity. +E n ergy — Assuming 50 kg nuts per tree and 100 trees per ha (they may bear quite +precociously) and 60% oil, there is an incredible 3 MT oil per hectare, if you could capture +it all. This edible oil could be used for fuel, if fuel were more valuable than food, and the +press-cake, if non-seleniferous, could be used for food or feed. Prunings from the trees, as +well as the husks, might be used for fuel. As Periera^^^ notes, the dry fruits serve as fuel. +Leaf litter alone approaches 2 MT/ha/hr. +B iotic factors — Mori and Prance^^^ found that the carpenter bee, X ylocopa fro n ta lis, is +a regular visitor to the flowers. It transports two types of pollen from the flower, viable +pollen from the staminal ring and non viable pollen (the reward) from the hood of the flowers. +Non viable pollen is collected and placed in pollen baskets; viable pollen, deposited on head +and back, causes fertilization.Bats, monkeys, parrots, and peccaries probably obtain most +of the pro duc tion.In Trinidad, bats {P hyllostom us hastatus) remove the seeds, +dropping them after eating the aril, either in flight or under their roosts. Bats are the main +dispersers. +204 Handbook of Nuts +LICANIA RIGIDA Benth. (ROSACEAE) — Oiticica +Syn.: P lera g in a um hresissim a Arruda Camara +Uses — Seeds of this tree are the source of Oiticica Oil, a drying oil used in place of +tung oil for varnishes and protective coatings. Trees are sometimes grown as shade trees in +villages where the plants are native. Timber sometimes used in construction.*’ +Folk medicine — No data available. +Chemistry — Hilditch and Williams*^^ indicate that the seed fat contains 61% alpha- +licanic acid (4-keto-9,l 1,13-octadecatrienic acid) (C18H28O3) and 17% alpha- elaeostearic +acids. Licanic acid is unique among natural fatty acids in containing a ketonic group. +According to Vaughan,the oil most closely resembles tung oil in chemical and physical +properties. The oil cake contains 9% protein, but contains so much tannin and residual oil +as to be unsuitable for animal feed. Hager’s Handbook*^^ puts the oil content of the whole +fruit at 33 to 45%, the kernels at 49 to 65%. Of this, 70 to 82% is alpha-licanic acid, 4 to +12% oleic-, up to 4% linoleic-, 10 to 11% palmitic-, and stearic- and isolicanic-acid. +Myricetin is also reported. Here we have no exception to disprove the rule. In general, +tropical oilseeds have higher percentages of saturated fatty acids, compared to their temperate +counterparts. In the Rosaceae, seed fats of tropical genera have about 10% saturated fatty +acids, temperate genera about 5%. The tropical oils hence become rancid more rapidly. *^®’*^* +Description — Small tree to 15 m tall, with spreading crown, the young branches lanate +to tomentellous, soon becoming glabrous and lenticellate. Leaves oblong to elliptic, 6.0 to +13.0 (to 16.0) cm long, 2.8 to 6.5 cm broad, coriaceous, rounded to cordate at base, glabrous +and shining on upper surface, the lower surface with deeply reticulate venation quite or +nearly describing stomatal cavities, with lanate pubescence among but not on veins; midrib +prominulous above, puberulous toward base when young; primary veins 11 to 16 pairs. +205 +prominent on lower surface, prominulous above; 5.0 to 8.0 cm long, tomentose when young, +becoming glabrescent with age, terete, with two sessile glands. Stipules linear, to 10.0 mm +long, membranous, caducous. Inflorescenes racemose panicles, the rachis and branches +gray-tomentose. Flowers 2.5 to 3.5 mm long, in small groups, sessile on primary branches +of inflorescence. Bracts and bracteoles 1.5 to 2.5 mm long, ovate, tomentose on exterior, +persistent, entire to serrulate, eglandular. Receptacle campanulate, gray-tomentose on ex­ +terior, tomentose within; pedicels to 0.5 mm long. Calyx lobes acute, tomentose on exterior, +tomentellous within. Petals 5, densely pubescent. Stamens ca. 14; filaments equalling calyx +lobes, connate to about half-way from base, densely pubescent. Ovary attached to base of +receptacle, villous. Style equalling calyx lobes, villous nearly to apex. Fruit elliptic, 4.0 to +5.5 cm long; epicarp smooth, drying green or black; mesocarp thin, fleshy; endocarp thin, +fibrous, fragile, fibers arranged longitudinally promoting longitudinal dehiscence, sparsely +pubescent within. Germination hypogeal.^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, oiticica, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate drought. Some efforts have been made to develop high- +yielding strains which can be propagated vegetatively. The number of native trees is limited +by their habitat requirements and cannot be increased to meet increasing demands for oil.®^^^^ +Distribution — Dry forests and gallery forests of northeastern Brazil. According to +Prance,this species is cultivated outside its natural range, e.g., in Trinidad, “but is not +used commercially outside Brazil.” This tree is confined primarily to the arid regions of +northeastern Brazil, including the states of Ceara, Rio Grande de Norte, Bahia, Piaui, +Maranhao, Paraiba, and northern Pernambuco. Introduced to Trinidad and a few other regions +with similar ecological conditions. +Ecology — Oiticica trees thrive on dry tropical lowlands where there is a dry season from +July to December and where the annual rainfall varies from ca. 9 to 14 dm.®^ It is often +found in dry open grasslands bordering rivers. Plantations should be put on well-drained, +alluvial, fertile soils, rich in potash, with a pH of about 7.0. The average temperature should +be 31.7 to 32.9°C.^^^ Markley^^ suggests that it is especially common along the banks of +rivers, said to form dense groves in rich alluvial soils. +Cultivation — Propagation is by seed, grafting, and budding. Seeds lose their viability +soon after ripening, seeds 6 months old having lost most of their viability. Best growth is +obtained when the seeds are sown in well-watered, good alluvial soils, in a nursery. Seedlings +are about 17 cm tall in 60 days. The nursery should be irrigated and deeply cultivated. +Transplants are set 0.5 m apart in rows 1 m apart and irrigated every 10 to 15 days during +the dry season. Four months after transplanting (when the seedling is about 6 months old) +seedlings average nearly a meter tall. Stocks are grafted when 5 to 7 months old. Several +methods of grafting, including inarching and budding, have been tried, with budding being +most practicable, because of the difficulty in transporting stocks when inarching. Buds +sprouted in 25 to 80 days after grafting, mostly in 24 to 40 days. The period between sowing +of seed and final setting of the grafted tree in the orchard is about 22 months, depending +upon the time of the rainy season. +Harvesting — Usually 3 years after the beginning of nursery work or 2 years and 3 +months after grafting, about 12% of the trees were found to flower and set fruit. Then the +trees continue to bear for many years, some estimate as long as 75 years. Ripened fruits +fall to the ground or are knocked off by shaking the trees. They are collected by men, +women, and children, and delivered to local warehouses. Extracting companies maintain +collection stations at the end of or along the few available roads or railroads in the regions +where the nuts grow native. After the refining companies receive the fruits, they ship them +to larger warehouses or the extracting companies where the fruits are cleaned and prepared +for processing. Seed (kernel) is easily removed from the husk and the oil obtained by pressure +alone, or by pressure plus action of solvents. Because of its unpleasant odor and semisolid +206 Handbook of Nuts +state, its uses will be greatly restricted until means are found for refining it and keeping it +in a liquid state. After pressing, the oil is transported to the refinery. Harvesting is from +December through April. As Vaughan^^^ puts it, “ From December to March, the fruits +fall to the ground and are collected.” +Yields and economics — Having seen no published yield data on this tree, I estimate +that in good years a tree may drop 2 to 3 MT fruits per hectare, suggesting potential kernel +yields of 1,200 to 3,000 kg, and oil yields of 700 to 1,800 kg/ha. Concerning the oil yields, +the following data may be helpful: average weight per nut = 2.27 to 4.7 g; average percent +of kernel per nut = 58 to 70%; average percent of oil per kernel = 52.9 to 60%.^^^ Felling +the tree and exporting seed are prohibited. Brazil has the monopoly on production of Oiticica +Oil, producing annually ca. 20,000 MT, this amount fluctuating from year to year. Vaughan^^^ +suggested an annual seed production of 54,000 MT. In 1941, Brazil produced 18 to 19 MT, +exporting more than 16 MT.^^^ Oiticica oil must compete with tung, dehydrated castor oil, +and in some cases, with linseed oil. Around 1957, the industry was centered in Ceara, where +14 of the 20 processing mills were located. The largest mill, Brazil Oiticica S.A., had a +reported crushing capacity of 3,500 tons per month, mostly oiticica and cashew. +Energy — Prunings and falling biomass from large trees like this could easily add up to +5 to 10 MT/ha. Seed yields should be higher than those of temperate tree members of the +Rosaceae, e.g., almond. The press-cake, because of a relatively toxic reputation, might be +better for fuel than for food. +Biotic factors — Fertilization of the flowers is by means of insects, but a large number +of buds drop before opening or without setting fruit. It has been estimated that for a tree to +set 150,000 seeds (458 kg), it would have to bear 12 million buds.^^® +207 +MAC AD AMI A INTEGRIFOLIA Maiden & Betche, MAC AD AMI A TETRAPHYLLA L. John­ +son (PROTEACEAE) — Macadamia Nuts, Australian Nuts +Uses — Macadamia nuts are eaten raw or, after cooking in oil, are roasted and salted; +also used to make an edible bland salad oil. Rumsey^®^ recommends it also as a timber tree +and ornamental. Years ago a coffee-like beverage known as “ almond coffee” was marketed +from the seeds. +Folk medicine — No data available. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the nut is reported to contain 691 calories, 3.0 to 3.1 g H2O, +7.8 to 8.7 g protein, 71.4 to 71.6 g fat, 15.1 to 15.9 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 g fiber, 1.7 +g ash, 48 mg Ca, 161 mg P, 20 mg Fe, 264 mg K, 0 mg (3-carotene equivalent, 0.34 mg +thiamine, 0.11 mg riboflavin, 1.3 mg niacin, and 0 mg ascorbic acid.®^ According to +MacFarlane and Harris, the oil is high in monounsaturates (79%) and palmitoleic acid +(16 to 25%). The composition ranges from 0.1 to 1.4% lauric, 0.7 to 0.8 myristic, 8.0 to +9.2 palmitic, 15.6 to 24.6 palmitoleic, 3.3 to 3.4 stearic, 54.8 to 64.2 oleic, 1.5 to 1.9 +linoleic, 2.4 to 2.7 arachidic, 2.1 to 3.1 eicosenoic, and 0.3 to 0.7% behenic acids. The +oil-cake contains 8.1% moisture, 12.6% oil, 2.6% crude fiber, 33.4% crude protein, and +43.3% N-free extract. +Description — Macadamia integrifolia: trees up to 20 m tall, with spread of 13 m. Leaves +opposite in seedlings, later in whorls of 3, pale-green or bronze when young, 10 to 30 cm +long, margins with few or no spines, petioles about 1.3 cm long. Flowers creamy white, +petalless, borne in groups of 3 or 4 along a long axis in racemes, much like grapes. Fruit +208 Handbook of Nuts +consisting of a fleshy green husk enclosing a spherical seed; nuts round or nearly so, surface +smooth or nearly so, 1.3 to 2.5 cm in diameter; shell tough, fibrous, difficult to crack; +kernel white, of uniform quality, shrinking only slightly after harvesting. Flowers June +through to March, some strains almost ever-bearing, flowering while fruiting. +M acadam ia tetraph ylla: trees up to 20 m tall, with spread of 13 m. Leaves opposite in +seedlings, commonly in fours rarely in threes or fives, purple or reddish when young, margins +serrate with many spines, up to 50 cm long, sessile or on very short petioles. Flowers pink, +in large racemes. Fruit consisting of a fleshy green husk enclosing one seed; nuts usually +elliptical or spindle-shaped, surface pebbled; kernel grayish; variable in quality and shrinking +some after harvest. Flowers between August and October, producing one main crop. Between +these two distinct types are numerous intermediate forms varying in spininess of leaves, +color of flower, size of nut and thickness of shell. +Germplasm — Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, macadamias or cvs +thereof are reported to tolerate drought, slope and wind.^^ Since 1956, M acadam ia inte- +grifolia (smooth-shelled type) and M acadam ia tetraphylla L. (rough-shelled type) are the +names properly applied to the cultivated Macadamia nuts. Prior to this time they had been +generally referred to M acadam ia ternifolia. F. Muell. is a distinct species, bearing small, +bitter, cyanogenic seeds less than 1.3 cm in diameter, inedible and never cultivated. Many +cultivars have been developed, and grafted trees of promising selections have been made. +Three cvs of M . integrifolia, ‘Kakea’, ‘Ikaika’ and ‘Keauhou’, have been planted extensively +in Hawaii, all giving satisfactory production under favorable conditions. ‘Keaau’ has been +more recently recommended for commercial planting in Hawaii, since it is highly resistant +to wind and yields 5 to 10% more than previous cvs, the entire crop maturing and dropping +before the end of November. Most of the Australian crop is based upon M . tetraphylla, +with some orchards of grafted M . integrifolia cvs. Among the medium- to thick-shelled +selections, used mainly for processing, are ‘Richard’, ‘Tinana’, ‘Our Choice’ and ‘Hinde’. +Rough-shelled types, mostly grown for table purposes, are ‘Collard’, ‘Howard’, ‘Sewell’ +and ‘Ebony’. Cvs showing hybrid characteristics are ‘Oakhurst’ and ‘Nutty Glen’. ‘Ted- +dington’ is a hybrid with thin shell. +Distribution — Native to coastal rain-forests of central east Australia (New South Wales +and Queensland). Introduced in other parts of tropics, e.g., Ceylon, and commercially grown +in Costa Rica, Hawaii, and France, at medium elevation. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry (without frost) through Tropical Moist +Forest Life Zones, macadamias are reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 26 dm, +annual temperature of 15 to 25°C, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0.^^ Macadamia grows best in rain­ +forest areas, along coasts with high humidity and heavy rainfall. However, it is tolerant of +adverse conditions when once established. Inland crops are usually lighter than coastal crops. +Trees produce a deep taproot and relatively few lateral roots; therefore, they may need +windbreaks in exposed areas. Under orchard conditions, trees are shapely, robust, and more +heavily foliaged than they are in rain-forest. Grows well on a wide range of soils, but fails +on infertile coastal sands, heavy clays, or gravelly ridges. Yields well on deep, well-drained +loams and sandy loams. Slopes steeper than 1 in 25 should be planted on the contour, and +every precaution taken to prevent soil erosion. +Cultivation — Propagation by seed is not difficult, but seedlings are variable in production +and nut characteristics, and of little value for commercial plantings. Freshly harvested nuts +are best for germination, but require 30 to 90 days before germination. Propagation is usually +by cuttings, marcottage, and side-tongue grafts. Root-stocks for grafting are readily grown +from seed by ordinary nursery means. Grafting in Macadamia is more difficult than in most +nut trees, due to hardness of wood. Best results are obtained when seedling root-stocks are +side-wedge grafted with selected scions. After-care of graft is similar to that practiced in +other trees. Budding is much less satisfactory than grafting. The most suitable time for +209 +transplanting young trees to orchard is from February to April in Australia and in Hawaii, +when rainfall is good and sufficient soil moisture available. Taproot should be severed about +30 cm below ground about 6 weeks before time to transplant, to allow fibrous roots to +develop. Roots are very susceptible to exposure and should not be allowed to dry out. Grafted +trees should be planted with the union well above ground level and watered immediately. +Since trees have a tendency to grow tall, young trees, when about 75 cm tall, should be +topped little by little to produce a few evenly spaced limbs, thus developing a strong, rounded +symmetrical tree. Little pruning is required in bearing trees except to discourage leaders, to +reduce lateral growth, to let in light, and to make cultural and harvesting operations more +favorable. Pruning should be done toward the end of winter after the crop is harvested. +Macadamia grows best in soils with a good supply of humus. Farm-yard manure may be +added, and green manure crops can be grown between trees in summer. Under orchard +conditions, regular applications of fertilizer are required, as a 8:10:5 formula, at a rate of +.45 kg per tree per year of age, maximum of 4.5 kg. Fertilizer should be applied in early +spring just before trees make new growth and start flowering. Zinc deficiencies seem to be +a problem with this tree — the symptoms being small, yellowish or slightly mottled leaves +which are bunched together, crop retardation, and poor shoot growth. The condition corrected +by application of foliar spray in early spring after the first flush of growth, at a rate of 4.5 +kg zinc sulfate, 1.3 kg soda ash (or 1.7 kg hydrate lime) in 100 gal water. However, spray +is effective at any period of year if symptoms are obvious. Since root system is rather close +to surface, shallow cultivation for weed control should be practiced. Summer cover crops, +e.g., cowpeas, and autumn green manure crops may be grown between trees until harvest +time. Grazing cattle on weeds and grass in orchards has the advantage of adding animal +manure. +Harvesting — Nuts mature 6 to 7 months after flowering and should be allowed to ripen +on the trees. Usually the nuts fall to the ground when mature. In some cvs, nuts remain on +trees and must be removed with rakes. After harvesting, nuts are dehusked, usually with an +improvised com-sheller, washed, placed on wire trays for about 6 weeks to dry out, graded, +and shipped to market. Machinery for cracking shells has been designed for processing +purposes, in addition to several efficient hand-operated crackers, which produce a kernel +undamaged. Kernels which are broken during cracking are used by confectioners. Shelled +kernels deteriorate rather quickly unless kept in vacuum-sealed jars. Processed nuts when +roasted and slightly salted keep extremely well.^^^’^"^® +Yields and economics — Most trees begin bearing fruit at 6 to 7 years, while other trees +must be 10 to 15, vegetatively propagated trees bearing earlier. Yield records vary widely, +depending on strain characteristics and environmental factors. Macadamia has great com­ +mercial potential in the tropics and makes an excellent door-yard tree. In addition to pro­ +duction of nuts in Australia, production in Hawaii in 1970 amounted to 5750 tons. Presently, +production is being developed in South Africa, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Jamaica, Samoa, and +Zimbabwe. +Energy — According to Saleeb et al.,^^® nuts of M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla are +equal in oil content, with an iodine value of 75.4 and 71.8, respectively. They describe a +method for partially extracting the oil (6 to 14% of the weight of intact oven-dry kernels), +rendering them more attractive, digestible, and less fattening, while diverting 14% of the +weight to oil production. In Australia yields are estimated at about 45 kg per tree annually; +in Hawaii, at 135 kg per tree. New cultivars are known to yield as much as 3.75 tons/ha, +averaging 1 ton of kernels, which should contain more than 700 kg oil/ha renewably (oil +makes up 65 to 75% of the kernel). +Biotic factors — Macadamia trees are attacked by G loeosporium sp. (Blossom blight) +and M acrophom a m acadam iae. Nematodes isolated from trees include: H elicotylenchus +dihystera, R otylenchus erythrinae, and Xiphinem a am ericanum . In Hawaii, the Southern +green stink-bug is a serious problem, damaging about 10% of the seed.^*^ +210 +MADHUCA LONGIFOLIA (L.) Macbr. (SAPOTACEAE) — Mahua, Illupei Tree, Mawra +Butter Tree +Syn.: Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel., Bassia longifolia L. +Uses — Mahua is valued for its edible flowers and oil-bearing seeds. Fresh flowers are +extremely sweet, less so when dried, having a flavor resembling that of figs. Rich in vitamins, +the flowers are eaten fresh or dried and cooked with rice, grains or shredded coconut, fried +or baked into cakes, or ground into flour and used in various foodstuffs. A large portion of +the crop of flowers is made into syrup containing ca. 60% sugar, suitable for making jams, +sweetmeats, or as a honey substitute, for production of alcohol (with average yields of 90 +gals of 95% alcohol per ton of dried flowers), for making vinegar, or distilled liqueurs and +wine. Molasses sugar of good quality is made from mahua. Syrup is used by natives of +Bastar (in Madhya Pradesh) instead of brown sugar. Flowers, and spent flowers after fer­ +mentation, are used as feed for livestock. The flesh of animals fed on mahua flowers has a +delicate flavor. Pressed cake of corollas is used as fertilizer. Mahua cake has insecticidal +and piscicidal properties. Because the saponin present in it has a specific action against +earthworms, it is applied to lawns and golf greens. Used, along with Acacia concinna, as +a hairwash in South India. Seeds, with 50 to 60% fat content, are the source of Mahua Oil +or Tallow Mawra Butter, used for manufacturing soaps and candles, and when refined, used +as butter. Oil has poor keeping quality. Used for edible and cooking purposes in some rural +areas. Refined oil is also used in the manufacturer of lubricating greases and fatty alcohols, +and as a raw material for the production of stearic acid. Wood is durable, lasting exceptionally +well under water, planes well, and takes a good finish, but is difficult to saw, and has a +tendency to split or crack. Wood is used for building purposes, as door and window frames, +beams, and posts, furniture, sports goods, musical instruments, oil and sugar presses, boats +and ship-building, bridges, well construction, turnery, agricultural implements, drums, carv­ +ing, and has been tried for railway sleepers. The bark contains 17% tannin and is used for +dyeing and tanning. Mahua berries are eaten raw or cooked, and are eaten by cattle, sheep, +goats, monkeys, and birds. Sometimes used as green manure. +211 +Folk Medicine — According to Hartwell,the flowers are used in folk remedies for +abdominal tumors. Reported to be anodyne, antidote, astringent, bactericide, carminative, +demulcent, emetic, emollient, expectorant, insecticide, lactagogue, laxative, piscicide, re­ +frigerant, stimulant, and tonic, mahua is a folk remedy for bee-sting, bilious conditions, +blister, blood disorders, breast ailments, bronchitis, cachexia, cholera, colds, consumption, +cough, diabetes, dysuria, ear ailments, eye ailments, fever, fistula, gingivitis, headaches, +heart problems, intestinal ailments, itch, leprosy, orchitis, phthisis, piles, pimples, rheu­ +matism, skin ailments, smallpox, snakebite, suppuration, tonsillitis, tuberculosis, tumors of +the abdomen, and wounds.^’ The gummy juice is used for rheumatism, the bark decoction +as an astringent and emollient, and as a remedy for itch; root, bark, leaves, and flowers for +snakebite, the flowers for scorpion sting.Mahua is considered to be astringent, stimulant, +emollient, demulcent, and nutritive in Ayurvedic medicine. Bark used to treat rheumatism, +ulcers, itches, bleeding and spongy gums, tonsillitis, leprosy, and diabetes. The emollient +oil is used in skin diseases, rheumatism, bilious fevers, burning sensations, headaches; being +laxative, it is useful in habitual constipation, piles, and hemorrhoids; and is used as an +emetic. Used in winter for chapped hands. Roots are applied to ulcers, bleeding tonsillitis, +rheumatism, diabetes mellitus, and spongy gums. Medicinally, flowers are reported to be +cooling, aphrodisiac, demulcent, galactagogue, expectorant, nutritive, tonic, and carmina­ +tive, are considered to be beneficial in heart diseases, bronchitis, coughs, wasting diseases, +burning sensation, biliousness, and ear complaints; dried flowers used as a fomentation in +orchitis. Fried flowers are eaten by people suffering from piles. Mahua flowers show anti­ +bacterial activity aginst Escherichia coli. The edible honey from the flowers is reported to +be used for eye diseases. Liquor made from the flowers used as an astringent and a tonic. +Mahua leaves are astringent, used in embrocations. Fruit used for bronchitis, consumption, +and blood diseases; seeds are galactagogue. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the inflorescence (ZMB) is reported to contain 5.0 g protein, +1.8 g fat, 89.0 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 g fiber, 4.2 g ash, 130 mg Ca, and 120 mg P. Per +100 g, the leaf (ZMB) is reported to contain 9.1 g protein, 3.9 g fat, 79.4 g total carbohydrate, +19.0 g fiber, 7.6 g ash, 1460 mg Ca, and 210 mg P.®^ An insoluble gum from incisions on +the trunk contains 48.9% gutta, 38.8% resin, and 12.3% ash. Bark contains 17% tannin. +The wood contains naphthaquinone, lapachol, and alpha- and beta-lapachones; the essential +oil from the fruit pulp contains ethyl cinnamate, alpha-terpineol, and a sesquiterpene fraction. +Myricetin and myricetin-3-O-L-rhamnoside has been isolated from the leaves.In addition. +The Wealth of India^^ reports 51.1% fatty oil, 8.0% protein, 27.9% N-free extract, 10.3% +fiber, and 2.7% ash in an analysis of the seed kernel. Senaratne et al.^®^ report the fatty +acid components of the seed oil to be 23% palmitic, 15% stearic, 46% oleic, 14% linoleic, +and traces of linolenic acids. The glyceride structure of the oil is reported to be 1% dipalmito- +stearins, 1% oleo-dipalmitins, 27% oleo-palmitostearins, 41% palmito-dioleins, and 30% +stearodioleins. The Wealth of India'^^ reports the values are trace trisaturated, 47% mono- +unsaturated-disaturated, 36% mono-saturated-diunsaturated, and 17% tri-unsaturated. Per +100 g, the corollas are reported to contain 18.6% moisture, 4.4% protein, 0.5% fat, 72.9% +total sugars, 1.7% fiber, 2.7% ash, 140 mg P, 140 mg Ca, and 15 mg Fe; magnesium and +copper are present. The sugars are identified as sucrose, maltose, glucose, fructose, ara- +binose, and rhamnose. Corollas also contain 39 lU carotene, 7 mg ascorbic acid, 37 |xg +thiamine, 878 |xg riboflavin, and 5.2 mg niacin per 100 g. Folic acid, pantothenic acid, +biotin, and inositol are also present. Corollas also contain an essential oil, anthocyanins, +betaine, and salts of malic and succinic acids. The ripe fruits, per 100 g, are reported to +contain 73.64% moisture, 1.37% protein, 1.61% fat, 22.69% carbohydrates, 0.69% mineral +matter, 45 mg Ca, 22 mg P, 1.1 mg Fe, 512 lU carotene, and 40.5 mg ascorbic acid; tannins +are present. The oil contains 22.7% ethyl cinnamate, 3.5% alpha-terpineol, and 67.9% +sesquiterpene and sesquiterpene alcohol. The green leaves contain 78.95% moisture, 19.60% +212 Handbook of Nuts +organic matter, 0.43% N, 1.45% mineral matter, 0.43% potash (K2O), 0.087% phosphoric +acid (P2O5). and 0.10% silica. Analysis of samples of coagulum from incisions made in the +bark show 12.2 to 19.9% caoutchouc, 48.9 to 75.8% resin, and 11.9 to 38.9% +insolubles. +Toxicity — According to Burkill,^^ there is a saponin or sapo-glucoside in the seeds +which has a destructive action on the blood. Awasthi et al.^'^ report the presence of a bitter +glucosidic principle from mahua seed that was shown to possess digitalis-like action on frog +heart. Over-consumption of mahua flowers is reported to cause vomiting and stomach +disorders. ;2^ +Description — Large deciduous tree, 13 to 17 m tall, with a short trunk and numerous +spreading branches forming a dense rounded crown. Leaves elliptic to linear-lanceolate, 8 +to 20 cm long, 3 to 4.5 cm wide, tapering to base, glabrous when mature, clustered at ends +of branches. Flowers small, in dense clusters of 30 to 50 at ends of branches; corolla tubular, +1.5 cm long, yellowish to cream-colored, thick, fleshy, globe-shaped, enclosed at the base +in a velvety chocolate-brown calyx. Fruit an ovoid berry up to 5 cm long, yellow when +ripe. Seeds 1 to 4, yellow to brown, ovoid, shining, 2.5 to 3 cm long, kernel about 70% +by weight of seed and containing 35 to 40% of a greenish grease (fat-oil). Trees shed their +leaves in February, and flowers appear in March and April, at which time the ground beneath +the trees is carefully cleared. Flowers March to April; fruits May to June.^^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, mahua, or cvs thereof, +is reported to tolerate drought, frost, insects, poor soil, slope, savanna, and waterlogging.®^ +According to The W ealth o f India van Royen revised the taxonomy and nomenclature of +the genus M adhuca of the Malaysian area. He merged M . indica and M . longifolia under +the latter name and distinguished two varieties, var. longifolia and var. latifolia.'^^ +Distribution — Native to southern India. Although it grows spontaneously in some parts, +it is extensively cultivated throughout India and Sri Lanka. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Moist +Forest Life Zones, mahua is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7.0 to 40.3 dm (mean +of 4 cases = 17.7), annual temperatures of 24.2 to 27.5°C (mean of 4 cases = 25.4°C), +and pH of 5.0 to 7.5 (mean of 3 cases = 6.6).®^ Mahua, usually drought-resistant, is +especially suited for dry or waste lands where little else will grow. Trees thrive on dry, +stony ground in all parts of India, and are protected by the natives. Trees are frost-hardy, +but do suffer from severe conditions. It is sometimes found in waterlogged or low-lying +clayey and shallow soils. Requires full sun and is readily suppressed by shade. When cut +in dry season, plants coppice well, but not during the rainy season.^^® +Cultivation — In southern India, trees are frequently cultivated as an avenue tree. Seeds +may germinate naturally during the rainy season, soon after falling, where earth is washed +into small hollows. Subsequent growth is slow, but is favored by sunlight. For artificial +propagation, seeds are sown directly or for transplant. Fresh seeds are sown in July and +August, in prepared lines or patches. Transplanting may be risky due to the long, delicate +taproots. In India, seeds are sown directly in deep containers or the seedlings transplanted +into them from the nursery during the first rainy season a few weeks after germination. +Young trees are frequently intercropped with annual crops, at least during the first 10 to 15 +years. ^^® +Harvesting — Under favorable soil and climatic conditions, mahua trees begin to bear +fruit in 8 to 10 years after planting, and continue to do so for over 60 years. Corollas fall +in great showers in early morning to the previously cleaned ground, from about the end of +March until the end of April. They are collected by women and children and spread out on +mats to dry in the sun, shrinking to about one-half their weight and turning reddish-brown. +Sometimes flowers are collected before they drop; in some places it is the practice to remove +only the corolla, leaving the pistil to ripen to a fruit. Harvest period is 7 to 10 days for a +213 +single tree. Flowers, when dried, are sold to distilleries, where they are immersed in water +for about 4 days, allowed to ferment and thereafter distilled. The spirit, somewhat similar +to Irish whiskey, has a strong, smokey, and rather fetid flavor, improved by aging, producing +a strong palatable drink. One ton of dried flowers produces ca. 90 gal of 95% ethyl alcohol. +Fruits may occur in alternate years. Fruits fall from tree when ripe or may be dropped by +shaking the branches. Season for collecting is short, from May to June, but may be extended +until December in southern India. Seeds are separated from the smooth chestnut-brown +pericarp by bruising, rubbing, or subjecting them to moderate pressure. Then they are dried +and shelled to get the kernel, these constituting the Mahua seed of commerce. Mahua oil +is extracted by cold expression; the yield of oil, depending on the efficiency of equipment, +varies from 20 to 43%, the highest gotten when extracted by solvents. In Central India, +kernels are pounded, boiled, wrapped in several folds of cloth, and then the oil is expressed. +Fresh Mahua Oil from properly stored seeds is yellow with a disagreeable odor. In warmer +areas, the oil is a liquid; in cold weather or areas, it solidifies to a buttery consistency. +Mahua cake from seeds is used as a manure, alone or mixed with mineral fertilizers, or +made into a compost with sawdust, cane trash, or bagasse, about 3 months being required +for nitrification of the cake. Quantities (1,000 to 1,750 tons) of this compost are exported +from India to Sri Lanka and Britian annually. Mahua cake also has insecticidal and piscicidal +properties, and is applied to lawns and golf courses against earth worms. +Y ield s and E con om ics — Trees require about 20 years to attain full production of flowers +and seeds; an average tree producing from 90 to 125 kg of flowers per year. Mahua is +essentially a forest crop. Still, the total amount of seeds collected in the forest is less than +from trees in semi-cultivated areas. An estimated 7 million trees in India produce about +100,000 tons of seed per year. India is the principal producer of all products of mahua, and +the bulk of the crop is consumed locally. Some products are exported to Belgium, Germany, +France, and Britain. Indian mills convert 15,000 to 30,000 tons of seeds into oil annually. +E n ergy — A good fuel wood, it is hard and heavy, specific gravity approximately 0.95 +to 0.97. Pruning, perhaps amounting to 2 to 4 MT ha, could be used for firewood. Sap wood +has a calorific value of 4,890 to 4,978 calories (8,802 to 8,962 Btu); heartwood, 5,005 to +5,224 calories (9,010 to 9,404 Btu). Seed oil (20 to 43%) could be used for diesel substitution, +the press-cake converted to power alcohol. Assuming 100 trees per ha and 1(X) kg flowers +per tree, one might expect 900 gallons (>20 barrels) ethanol per hectare. +B iotic factors — Trees are damaged by loranthaceous parasites. Mahua trees are affected +by several fungi: S copella (U rom yces) echinulata (rust), P olystictus steinheilianus (white +spongy rot). P om es caryoph ylli (heart rot of stems), and P olyporus gilvus (root and butt +rot). Leaves are eaten by caterpillars: A chaea ja n a ta , A nuga m ultiplicans, B om boletia nu- +gatrix, M etanastria hyrtaca, and R hodoneura s p p ., A crocercops spp. (leaf-miners); the bark +is destroyed by O donoterm es obesus, C optoterm es ceylanicus, and K aloterm es sp. (white +ants) and X yloctonu s scolytoides (bark borers); sap wood of dead trees is damaged by Schis- +toceros an abioides and X ylocis tortilicornis (ghoon borers).Also attacked by the sap- +sucker U naspis acum inata In addition, Browne^^ lists Angiospermae: D en drophthoe fa l- +cata; Lepidoptera: O phiusa ja n a ta . +214 Handbook of Nuts +MORINGA OLEIFERA Lam. (MORINGACEAE) — Horseradish-Tree, Benzolive Tree, +Drumstick-Tree, Sohnja, Moringa, Murunga-Kai +Syn.: Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn., Moringa nux-ben Perr., Guilandina moringa L. +Uses — Described as “ one of the most amazing trees God has created” .A lm o st every +part of the Moringa is said to be of value for food. Seed is said to be eaten like a peanut +in Malaya. Thickened root used as substitute for horseradish. Foliage eaten as greens, in +salads, in vegetable curries, as pickles and for seasoning. Leaves pounded up and used for +scrubbing utensils and for cleaning walls. Flowers are said to make a satisfactory vegetable; +interesting particularly in subtropical places like Florida, where it is said to be the only tree +species that flowers every day of the year. Flowers good for honey production. Young pods +cooked as a vegetable. Seeds yield 38 to 40% of a nondrying oil, known as Ben Oil, used +in arts and for lubricating watches and other delicate machinery. Haitians obtain the oil by +crushing browned seeds and boiling in water. Oil is clear, sweet and odorless, said never +to become rancid (not true, according to Ramachandran et al.).^®"^ It is edible and used in +the manufacture of perfumes and hairdressings. Wood yields blue dye. Leaves and young +branches are relished by livestock. Commonly planted in Africa as a living fence (Hausa) +tree. Ochse^^® notes an interesting agroforestry application; the thin crown throws a slight +shade on kitchen gardens, which is “ more useful than detrimental to the plants” . Trees +planted on graves are believed to keep away hyenas and its branches are used as charms +against witchcraft. In Taiwan, treelets are spaced 15 cm apart to make a living fence, the +top of which is lopped off for the calcium- and iron-rich foliage.Bark can serve for +tanning; it also yields a coarse fiber. Trees are being studied as pulpwood sources in India. +Analyses by Mahajan and Sharma^®^ indicate that the tree is a suitable raw material for +producing high alpha-cellulose pulps for use in cellophane and textiles. In rural Sudan, +powdered seeds of the tree Moringa oleifera are used to purify drinking water by coagulation. +In trials, the powder was toxic to guppies (Poecilia reticulata)^ protozoa {Tetrahymena +pyriformis), and bacteria {Escherichia coli), and it inhibited acetylcholinesterase. It had no +215 +effect on coliphages, lactic dehydrogenase, or invertase, and the equivalent of cotyledon +powder up to 1000 mg/liter had no mutagenic effect on salmonella. Pericarp had no effect. +Powdered cotyledon at 5 mg/liter affected oxygen uptake of T. pyriformis, 30 to 40 mg/liter +disturbed locomotion of guppies, and the 96-H LC50 for guppies was 196 mg/liter. Toxic +effects may have been due to 4(alpha-1-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate, a glycosidic +mustard oil. The toxin seemed not to be a danger to the health of man, at least not in the +concentrations present during the use of the seeds for nutrition, medicine, or water purifi­ +cation.^®^ For the low-turbidity waters of the Blue Nile, only a quarter seed per liter of water +is required, for moderately turbid water, half a seed, and for fully turbid, 1 to 1.5 seeds +per liter. Such seed are hulled, crushed, and reduced to a powder. +Folk Medicine — According to Hartwell,the flowers, leaves, and roots are used in +folk remedies for tumors, the seed for abdominal tumors. Reported to be abortifacient, +antidote (centipede, scorpion, spider), bactericide, cholagog, depurative, diuretic, ecbolic, +emetic, estrogenic, expectorant, purgative, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge, and +vesicant — horseradish-tree is a folk remedy for adenopathy, ascites, asthma, baldness, +boils, bums, catarrh, cholera, cold, convulsion, dropsy, dysentery, dysuria, earache, epi­ +lepsy, erysipelas, faintness, fever, gout, gravel, hematuria, hysteria, inflammation, madness, +maggots, neuralgia, palsy, pneumonia, rheumatism, scabies, scrofula, scurvy, skin ailments, +snakebite, sores, spasms, splenitis, sterility (female), syphilis, toothache, tumors, ulcers, +vertigo, wounds, and yellow-fever.^^ The root decoction is used in Nicaragua for dropsy. +Root juice is applied externally as mbefacient or counter-irritant. Leaves applied as poultice +to sores, mbbed on the temples for headaches, and said to have purgative properties. Bark, +leaves, and roots are acrid and pungent, and are taken to promote digestion. Oil is somewhat +dangerous if taken internally, but is applied externally for skin diseases. Bark, regarded as +antiscorbutic, exudes a reddish gum with properties of tragacanth; sometimes used for +diarrhea. Bitter roots act as a tonic to the body and lungs, and are emmenagogue, expectorant, +mild diuretic, and stimulant in paralytic afflictions, epilepsy, and hysteria. Other medicinal +uses are suggested in Kirtikar and Basu,^^^ Morton,and Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk.^^^ +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the pod is reported to contain 86.9 g H2O, 2.5 g protein, 0.1 +g fat, 8.5 g total carbohydrate, 4.8 g fiber, 2.0 g ash, 30 mg Ca, 110 mg P, 5.3 mg Fe, +184 lU Vitamin A, 0.2 mg niacin, and 120 mg ascorbic acid, 310 |xg Cu, 1.8 |xg I. Young +pods contain indoleacetic acid and indole acetonitrile.^®® Leaves contain 75 g H2O, 6.7 g +protein, 1.7 g fat, 14.3 g total carbohydrate, 0.9 g fiber, 2.3 g ash, 440 mg Ca, 70 mg P, +7 mg Fe, 110 |xg Cu, 5.1 |xg I, 11,300 lU Vitamin A, 120 |xg Vitamin B, 0.8 mg nicotinic +acid, 220 mg ascorbic acid, and 7.4 mg tocopherol per 100 g. On a ZMB, leaf curries +contain 25.8 ppm thiamin, 7.26 ppm riboflavin, and 35 ppm niacin.^®^ If ascorbic acid is +the target, leaves should be gathered before flowering and consumed quickly. Estrogenic +substances, including the antitumor compound, beta-sitosterol, and a pectinesterase are also +reported. Leaf amino acids include 6.0 g arginine per 16 g N, 2.1 histidine, 4.3 lysine, 1.9 +tryptophane, 6.4 phenylalanine, 2.0 methionine, 4.9 threonine, 9.3 lucine, 6.3 isoleucine, +and 7.1 valine. Pod amino acids include 3.6 g arginine per 16 g N, 1.1 g histidine, 1.5 g +lysine, 0.8 g tryptophane, 4.3 g phenylalanine, 1.4 g methionine, 3.9 g threonine, 6.5 g +leucine, 4.4 g, isoleucine, and 5.4 valine. Seed kernel (70 to 74% of seed) contains 4.08 +g H2O, 38.4 g crude protein, 34.7 g fatty oil, 16.4 g N free extract, 3.5 g fiber, and 3.2 g +ash. Seeds contain 100 ppm Vitamin E and 140 ppm beta-carotene.^^ The seed oil contains +9.3% palmitic, 7.4% stearic, 8.6% behenic, and 65.7% oleic acids among the fatty acids. +(Myristic and lignoceric acids have also been reported.) The cake left after oil extraction +contains 58.9% crude protein, 0.4% CaO, 1.1% P2O5 and 0.8% K2O. Gums exuding from +the trunks contain L-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucuronic acid, L-rhamnose, and D-xylose.^^^ +Pterygospermin (C22H18O2N2S2), a bactericidal and fungicidal compound, isolated from +Moringa has an LD50 subcutaneously injected in mice and rats of 350 to 400 mg/kg body +216 Handbook of Nuts +weight. It might serve as a fruit- and vegetable preservative. In low concentrations, it protects +mice against staphylococcus infections.^® Root-bark yields two alkaloids: moringine and +moringinine. Moringinine acts as a cardiac stimulant, produces rise of blood-pressure, acts +on sympathetic nerve-endings as well as smooth muscles all over the body, and depresses +the sympathetic motor fibers of vessels in large doses only. The root alkaloid, spirochin, +paralyzes the vagus nerve, hinders infection, and has antimycotic and analgesic activity. In +doses of 15 g, the root bark is abortifacient.^^^ +Description — Short, slender, deciduous, perennial tree, to about 10 m tall; rather slender +with drooping branches; branches and stems brittle, with corky bark. Leaves feathery, pale- +green, compound, tripinnate, 30 to 60 cm long, with many small leaflets, 1.3 to 2 cm long, +0.6 to 0.3 cm wide, lateral ones somewhat elliptic, terminal one obovate and slightly larger +than the lateral ones; flowers fragrant, white or creamy-white, 2.5 cm in diameter, borne +in sprays, with 5 sepals, 5 petals; stamens yellow. Pods pendulous, brown, triangular, +splitting lengthwise into 3 parts when dry, 30 to 120 cm long, 1.8 cm wide, containing +about 20 seeds embedded in the pith, pod tapering at both ends, 9-ribbed. Seeds 1 to 2 cm +wide, dark-brown, with 3 papery wings. Main root thick. Fruit production in March and +April in Sri Lanka. +Germplasm — Reported from the African and Hindustani Centers of Diversity, Moringa +or CVS thereof is reported to tolerate bacteria, drought, fungus, laterite, mycobacteria, and +sand.*^ Several cvs are grown: ‘Bombay’ is considered one of the best, with curly fruits. +Others have the fruits 3-angled or about round in cross-section. In India, ‘Jaffna’ is noted +for having fruits 60 to 90 cm, ‘Chavakacheri murunga’ 90 to 120 cm long. (2n = 28.) +Distribution — Native to India, Arabia, and possibly Africa and the East Indies; widely +cultivated and naturalized in tropical Africa, tropical America, Sri Lanka, India, Mexico, +Malabar, Malaysia, and the Philippine Islands. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Moist +Forest Life Zones, Moringa is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 40.3 cm +(mean of 53 cases = 14.1) annual temperature of 18.7 to 28.5°C (mean of 48 cases = +25.4) and pH of 4.5 to 8. (mean of 12 cases = 6.5). Thrives in subtropical and tropical +climates, flowering and fruiting freely and continuously. Grows best on a dry sandy soil, +but grows “ in all types of soils, except stiff clays’’.^® Drought resistant. +Cultivation — In India, the plant is propagated by planting limb cuttings 1 to 2 m long, +from June to August, preferably. The plant starts bearing pods 6 to 8 months after planting, +but regular bearing commences after the second year. The tree bears for several years. +Harvesting — Fruit or other parts of the plant are usually harvested as desired, according +to some authors; but in India, fruiting may peak between March and April and again in +September and October. Seed gathered in March and April and oil expressed. +Yields and economics — I feel, from personal observations, that Moringa’s biomass and +pod production should approach that of Prosopis growing in the same habitat. A single tree, +3 years old, can yield more than 600 pods per year, or up to 1000."^® A single fruit will have +ca. 20 seeds, each averaging 300 mg, suggesting a seed yield of 6 kg per tree, an oil yield +conservatively of 2 kg per tree. Such could be very useful in poor developing countries +which import vegetable oils. I would suggest a target yield of about 10 MT pods per hectare. +Horseradish-tree is grown locally in India, Sri Lanka, and elsewhere, and is consumed as +a local product, either ripe or unripe. +Energy — According to Verma et al.,^^® “ saijan” is a fast-growing tree being planted +in India on a large scale as a potential source of wood for the paper industry. At Fort Meyers, +Florida, trees attain ca. 5 m height 10 months after seed is planted.It seems doubtful that +the wood and seed oil could both be viewed as fountains of energy. According to Burkill,^^ +“ The seeds yield a clear inodorous oil to the extent of 22 to 38.5%. It bums with a clear +light and without smoke. It is an excellent salad oil, and gives a good soap . . . It can be +217 +used for oiling machinery, and indeed has a reputation for this purpose as watch oil, but is +now superseded by sperm oil.” Sharing rather similar habitat requirements with the jojoba +under certain circumstances, perhaps it might be investigated as a substitute for sperm whale +oil like jojoba. Growing readily from cuttings, the ben oil could be readily produced where +jojoba grows. Coming into bearing within two years, it could easily be compared to jojoba +in head-on trials. I recommend such. +Biotic factors — Fruitflies (Gitona spp.) have infested the fruits which then dried out at +the tip and rotted.Leaves of young plants and freshly planted stumps are attacked by +several species of weevils {Myllocerus discolor var. variegatus, M. 1 l-pustulatus, M. ten- +uiclavis, M. viridanus and Ptochus ovulum). Also parasitized by the flowering plant, Den- +drophthoe flacata. Fungi which attack the horseradish-tree include: Cercospora moringicola +(Leaf-spot), Sphaceloma morindae (Spot anthracnose), Puccinia moringae (rust), Oidium +sp., Polyporus gilvus, and Leveillula taurica (Papaya powdery mildew). +218 Handbook of Nuts +N ELU M BO NUCIFERA Gaertn. (NELUMBONACEAE) Sacred Lotus, Lotus Root, Indian +Lotus, Hasu +Syn.: Nymphaea nelumbo L., Nelumbo nelumbo (L.) Karst., Nelumbium nelumbo +(L.) Druce, Nelumbium speciosum Willd. +Uses — Rhizomes and seeds of the sacred lotus are frequently used for food, especially +in the Orient. The small scale-like leaves on the rootstock, up to 30 cm long, are used as +food in some countries. Plants are grown by Chinese and Japanese for the edible tubers, +which are used much like sweet potatoes, roasted, steamed, or pickled. In China, a type of +arrowroot is prepared from the rhizomes. Leaves may be eaten raw as a vegetable in salads. +Fruits can be eaten after the seeds are removed. Flowering stalks are eaten as a vegetable. +Seeds are usually boiled or roasted after removing the bitter-tasting embryo, or eaten +r a w 209,278.283 +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the lotus is used in folk remedies for corns. +219 +calluses, and tumors, and/or indurations of the abdomen, cervix, ear, limbs, kidney, liver, +and spleen. In China, the leaf juice is used for diarrhea or decocted with licorice for sunstroke +or vertigo. Flowers decocted, alone or with roses, for premature ejaculation. Floral receptacle +decocted for abdominal cramps, bloody discharge, metrorrhagia, and non-expulsion of am- +niotic sac. Fruit decocted for agitation, fever, heart, and hematemesis. Seed used for diarrhea, +enteritis, insomnia, metrorrhagia, neurasthenia, nightmare, spermatorrhea, splenitis, leu- +corrhea, and seminal emissions. The nourishing seeds are believed useful in preserving +health and strength, and promoting circulation. Root starch given for diarrhea, dysentery, +dyspepsia, the tonic paste applied to ringworm and other skin ailments. Plant refrigerant in +smallpox, said to stop eruptions. Antidote to alcohol and mushroom. Honey from bee visitors +is considered tonic; used for eye ailments. The embryo is used for cholera, fever, hemoptysis, +spermatorrhea. Knotty pieces of rootstock used for épistaxis, dysentery, hematemesis, he- +matochezia, hematuria, hemoptysis, and metrorrhagia. Cotyledons believed to promote vi­ +rility and alleviate leucorrhea and gonorrhea. Stamens said to purify the heart, permeate the +kidneys, strengthen the virility, blacken the hair, make joyful the countenance, benefit the +blood and check hemorrhages; for hemoptysis, spermatorrhea.^ According to Kirtikar and +Basu,‘^^ nearly every part of the plant has a distinct name and economic use. Ayurvedics +use the whole plant to give tone to the breast, and to correct biliousness, fever, nausea, +strangury, thirst, and worms. They use the root for biliousness, body heat, cough, and thirst, +the stem for blood disorders, leprosy, nausea, and strangury, the leaves for burning sen­ +sations, leprosy, piles, strangury, and thirst, the flower for biliousness, blood defects, cough, +eyes, fever, poisoning, skin eruptions, and thirst, the “ aphrodisiac” anthers in bleeding +piles, diarrhea, inflammations, mouth sores, poisoning, thirst, and as a uterine sedative, the +fruit for blood impurities, halitosis, and thirst, the “ aphrodisiac” seeds for burning sensa­ +tions, diarrhea, dysentery, leprosy, nausea, and to strengthen the body, and the honey as +an excellent tonic, useful in eye diseases. Yunani employ the diuretic root in chest pain, +leucoderma, smallpox, spermatorrhea, and throat ailments, the flower for bronchitis, internal +ailments, thirst, and watery eyes, and as a tonic for the brain and heart, the seeds for chest +complaints, fevers, leucorrhea, menorrhagia, and as a uterine tonic. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 318 to 390 calories, 16.6 +to 24.2 g protein, 1.0 to 2.7 g fat, 70.2 to 76.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 to 13.1 g fiber, +4.5 to 5.2 g ash, 139 to 330 mg Ca, 298 to 713 mg P, 6.1 to 7.1 mg Fe, 17.4 to 49.0 mg +Na, 942 to 1665 mg K, 0 to 35 jxg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.65 to 0.75 mg thiamine, +0.18 to 0.26 mg riboflavin, 1.9 to 7.8 mg niacin, and 0 to 44 mg ascorbic acid. The rhizome +(ZMB) contains 16.7 mg protein, 0.6 g fat, 74.1 g total carbohydrate, 4.9 g fiber, 6.8 g +ash, 370 mg Ca, 1.36 mg thiamine, 0.37 mg riboflavin, 12.96 mg niacin, and 93 mg ascorbic +acid.®^ Saline extracts bacteriostatic. Extracts show antitumor activity, vindicating its herbal +anticancer reputation. Liriodenine is active in the KB tumor system, oxoushinsunine, cy­ +totoxic; nuciferine and nomuciferine, antispasmodic. Anonaine, armepavine, demethylco- +claurine, gluconic acid, isoliensinine, liensenine, liriodenine, lotusine, D-N-methylcoclaurine, +neferin, nelumboside, N-nomuciferine, nomuciferine, nuciferine, pronuciferine, quercitin, +and roemerine are reported.Hagers Handbook^®^ mentions quercetin, isoquercitrin, leu- +cocyanidin, and leucodelphinidin from the leaves, quercetin, isoquercitrin, luteolin, glu- +coluteolin, kaempferol, and robinin in the petals and stamens. Seeds contain the active beta- +sitosterol and related esters, as well as glutathione, the embryo containing methylcorypalline +(a coronary dilator^'^O» luteolin-7-glucoside, mtin, and hyperoside. Raffmose and stachyose +have been isolated from the rhizome, ( + )catechin, ( + )-gallocatechin, neochlorogenic acid, +gallocatechin, leucocyanidin, and leucodelphinidin from the roots.H su et al.^"^^ add the +cardiotonic alkaloid higenamine. Is it a wonder that a chemistry set like this is considered +sacred in some parts of the world? +Description — Perennial rhizomatous herbaceous aquatic, from a stout, creeping root­ +220 Handbook of Nuts +stock 10 to 20 m long, branching, bearing numerous scale-like leaves as well as foliage +leaves, with milky juice; leaves blue-green with a silvery sheen, waterproof, peltate, circular, +up to 90 cm in diameter, concave, on petioles up to 1 m long above water, margins raised +upwards, the leaf-stalks and flower-stalks 1 to 2 m tall, hollow, with small scattered prickles; +flowers borne singly at ends of stalks, opening on three successive days before fading, +fragrant, extending above the leaves on long cylindrical stems; flowers 10 to 26 cm in +diameter, sepals 4 to 5, green caducous, inserted at base of receptacle, petals numerous, +rose-red to white, free, obovate, obtuse, 8 to 12 cm long, 3 to 7 cm broad, anthers linear, +yellow, 15 to 20 mm long, the filaments linear, 7 to 25 mm long; receptacle spongy, in +fruit in 10 cm high and wide, flat, the nuts (seeds) embedded within; nuts 2.0 cm by 1.3 +cm, ovoid to ellipsoidal, brown to blackish, protruding like knobs, without endosperm, with +a hard pericarp. Flowers June to August. +Germplasm — Reported from the Near Eastern Center of Diversity, sacred lotus, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, frost, and waterlogging.®^ Many varieties are cul­ +tivated in various parts of the world. Some of the best known cvs are album grandiflorum; +album plenum (‘Shiroman’, with double white flowers 30 cm across); kermesinum (light +rose); kinshiren (white shaded pink); osiris (deep rose); pulchrum (dark rosy-red); pekinese +rubrum (rosy-carmine); roseum (rosy-pink); plenum (large and double); pygmaeum (dwarf). +Seeds known to be 200 years old have been germinated from collections in dry Gobi Desert +lakes, plants of these are now being grown in the Kenilworth Aquatic Gardens in Washington, +D.C.^^® Priestley and Posthumus^^® describe viable Manchurian seed radiocarbon dated as +over 450 (ca. 466) years old. (2n = 16.) +Distribution — Native from the southern border of the Caspian Sea to Manchuria, south +throughout the warmer parts of India, Pakistan, China, Iran, Japan, and Australia. It is +cultivated in some Mediterranean countries and is naturalized in Rumania. It was commer­ +cially introduced in the U.S. about 1876; it has now become naturalized.^^® +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to +Moist Forest Life Zones, sacred lotus is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to +40.3 dm (mean of 11 cases = 14.2), annual temperature of 14.4 to 27.5°C (mean of 11 +cases = 19.6°C), and pH of 5.0 to 7.5 (mean of 10 cases = 6.2).®^ Lotus thrives with +plenty of sunshine and rich soil. The rhizomes grow in mud at the bottom of water, 60 to +90 cm deep. They require a minimum winter temperature above freezing. A good soil would +contain two parts loam and one part well-decayed manure. Once set, the plants flower freely. +Unless the roots are frozen, they are not harmed by the cold.^^® +Cultivation — Sacred lotus may be propagated from seed, sown in shallow pans of sandy +soil, immersed in water tanks heated to 15°C. Seedlings are allowed to grow in the seed +pans until large enough to plant out in tubs or ponds. When seeds are sown directly in ponds +or pools, they are rolled in a ball of clay and dropped in the water. The hard seeds germinate +better if scarified by boring or filing. Plants may be propagated by sections of the rhizomes +placed in large tubs or pools, indoors or outdoors. Divisions of the tubers may also be used +similarly. From 30 to 45 cm of compost is placed in a vessel, or tubs may be filled with +soil and submerged so that the soil surface is 18 to 30 cm below water level. Planting should +be in spring when weather has definitely warmed. Plants will grow in ponds or larger bodies +of water, as well as in tubs or half-barrels. Tubers may also be planted in late spring just +before they start new growth, in rich soil in the bottom of a pond, in water 30 to 90 cm +deep. If rhizomes are covered with sufficient water to prevent them from freezing (about +90 cm), they will over winter satisfactorily. If water is not deep enough to prevent the +rhizomes from freezing, the pool should be drained in the fall, the tubs removed to a cellar +or some place where the temperature is maintained about 1 to 8°C, or the plants should be +covered with 1 m or so leaves, hay, or straw and left outdoors for the winter.^^®’^®^ +Harvesting — Parts are harvested when available or needed.^^® +221 +Yields and economics — Commercially, only the rhizomes are sold in shops and markets +in southeastern Asia.^^® Duke®^ reports rhizome yields of 4.6 MT/ha. +Energy — This aquatic plant seems better viewed as an edible ornamental rather than a +vigorous biomass candidate. I don’t find it recommended (like the water hyacinth and cattail, +for example) by the champions of aquatics for energy. +Biotic factors — Sacred lotus is attacked by several fungi: A ltern aría nelum bii, A. tenuis, +C ercospora nelum bii, Fusarium bulbigenum , G loeosporium nelum bii, M acrosporium neF +umbii, M yrothecium roridum , Phom a nelum bii, P h yllosticta nelum bonis, P hysoderm a n el­ +umbii, and Sclerotium rolfsii. It is also attacked by B acillus nelum bii. +222 Handbook of Nuts +NYPA FRUTICANS Wurmb. (ARECACEAE) — Nipa Palm +Uses — Menninger^^ summarizes that the palm supplies roofing, thatching, baskets, +matting, cigarette wrappers, fuel, alcohol, sugar, toddy, and other products. Also useful for +stabilizing soils in tidal terrain. The nut is jelly-like at first, becoming nutty, and finally so +hard as to require grating or pounding for eating raw.^®^ The tender palm hearts are eaten +as a vegetable. Leaves are much valued for thatching, basketry, and mats. Umbrellas, sun- +hats, raincoats, mats, and bags are made from the leaves in the Philippine Islands. Midribs +are used for making coarse brooms and as fuel. Young unexpanded leaves are used as +cigarette wrappers. Leaflets, with 10.2% tannin and 15.2% hard-tans are used for tanning +leather. When fishing, fishermen submerge nipa leaves in the sea to attract fish. Salt is +obtained by burning the roots or leaves and leaching the ash. The ash is used, with wood- +tar, in blackening teeth. Sap is used for making jaggery, sugar,^^^ alcohol, and vinegar. +Arrows are made from the petioles in the Mentawai Islands. +Folk Medicine — Reported to be intoxicant, nipa palm is a folk remedy for centipede +bites, herpes, sores, toothache, and ulcers.’* The sugar is used in a tonic prescription. The +stem-bud has been used in making a charmed preparation to counteract poison. +Chemistry — Of 18% of solids in the fresh sap, 17% was found to be sucrose, 1/2% +ash. The increase in total carbohydrates in the kernels was from 71 to 78%, between the +time they were removed for sugar-tapping (3 months) and at maturity (4 months). Leaves +contain 10% tannin.Fresh nipa sap contains ca. 17% sucrose and only traces of reducing +sugars. Vinegar (from sap fermented ca. 2 weeks) contains 2 to 3% acetic acid. Inunature +seeds contain ca. 70% starch. Leaflets contain ca. 10.2% tannin and 15.2% hard-tans. +Description — Gregarious palm, the rootstock stout, branched, covered with the sheaths +of old leaves, leafing and flowering at the ends of the branches. Leaves pinnatisect; 4.5 to +223 +9 m long; leaflets linear-lanceolate, 1.2 to 1.5 m long, the sides reduplicate in vernation. +Spadix 1.2 to 2.1 m long, terminal, erect in flower, drooping if fruit. Flowers monoecious, +male in catkin-like lateral branches of the spadix, female crowded in a terminal head, perianth +glumaceous. Male flowers minute, surrounded with setaceous bracteoles; sepals linear with +broad truncate inflexed tips, imbricate; petals smaller; stamens 3; filaments connate in a +very short column; anthers elongate, basifixed; pistillode 0. Female flowers much longer +than the male; sepals 6, rudimentary, displaced; staminodes 0; carpels 3, connate, tips free +with an oblique stigmatic line; ovules 3, erect. Fruit large, globose syncarp, 30 cm in +diameter, of many obovoid, hexagonal, 1-celled, 1-seeded carpels, 10 to 15 cm long, with +pyramidal tips and infra-apical stigmas; pericarp fleshy and fibrous; endocarp spongy and +flowery; seed erect, grooved on one side; testa coriaceous, viscid within, adherent to the +endocarp; hilum broad; endosperm homy, equable, hollow; embryo basilar, obconic.*^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian Center of Diversity, the nipa +palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate heavy soils, salt, and tidal waterlogging. (2n += 16.) +Distribution — India south to Australia and New Guinea,in tidal mud from the mouth +of the Ganges to Australia.Introduced in the mangroves of South Nigeria, where it has +mn wild.^^® Reported to have grown successfully in brackish waters of southern Florida. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to +Moist Forest Life Zones, nipa palm is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 5 to 45 +dm, annual temperature of 21 to 27°C, and pH of 6.5 to 8.5. Often gregarious in mangrove +swamps and tidal forests, growing best in alluvial deposits of clayey loam with sufficient +salt.^® +Cultivation — Cultivated in Sumatra for wine and foliage production. Reproduces nat­ +urally by seed and detached portions of rhizome. It may attain 2 m height during its first +year.*^® Management consists of thinning natural stands to 2,500 to 3,500 palms per ha, 1.5 +to 2 m apart. Periodic pmning to maintain 7 to 8 leaves if favorable to sap production. +Other authors suggest much wider spacings, 380 to 750 trees per ha. Bangladesh nursery +results are best where submerged at least 230 min/day. +Harvesting — Nuts are harvested as needed. The palm is ready for wine tapping after +the second flowering, when about 5 years old. Tapping may continue 50 years or more. If +the plant bears more than one spadix, one is topped, the other removed. Sap collection is +continued for about 3 months. +Yields and economics — The average yield of sap per plant is 43 €. According to +McCurrach,^®^ one hectare of nipa will yield 8,000 gals of sweet syrup, inexpensive source +of sugar, vinegar, and particularly alcohol. Nipa production is rural-based and labor intensive, +though probably less so than other alcohol plants. +Energy — On Bohol Island in the Philippines, a mini-distillery was set up to evaluate +potential for the production of ethanol from the nipa palm. Sap of the nipa contains ca. 15% +sugar, which can be collected from mature fruits stalks after cutting off the head. With care, +this can be repeated over an extended period of time, yielding up to 40 € per tree per season. +This translates to a projected 30,000 € juice per hectare. Cultivated palms may produce as +much as 0.46 £ per tree per day, equivalent to ca. 8,000 £ alcohol per ha per year.^^^ +Halos^^‘ states that nipa is a better alcohol producer on a hectare basis than sugarcane or +coconut, comparing better with sweet potato. In 1919, 2 1/4 million gallons (more than +50,(XK) barrels) alcohol were produced from nipa palm. Midribs of the leaves are sometimes +used for fuel. +Biotic factors — Grapsid crabs are the worst pests of young nipa palms. Pollinated by +Drosophila flies. +224 Handbook of Nuts +ORBIGNYA COHUNE (Mart.) Dahlgren ex Standi. (AREACEAE) Cohune Palm +Syn.: A tta lea coh u n e Mart. +Uses — Seeds are source of Cohune Oil, a nondrying oil, considered finer than that of +coconut, used in food, as illuminant, and in the manufacture of soap. Very young buds, or +cabbage, consumed as a vegetable. Young leaves used to make hats and other apparel, and +for thatching.Pole-like rachis of the leaf used for forming the framework of huts. Large +quantities of nuts were once used in England for preparing charcoal used in gas masks. +Fruits made into sweetmeats and used as fodder for livestock. Trunk used for building. Sap +used for winemaking and for making intoxicating beverage.^^®’^*^ +Folk medicine — Reported to be poisonous. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 6.9 g protein and 52.2 +g fat. The tissue removed from the seed contained 1.2 g protein and 0.5 g fat.^^ +Toxicity — “ It was said that if too much of the nut was eaten, constipation and sometimes +death might result. +Description — Tall monoecious palm 16 to 20 m tall; trunk to 30 cm thick, spineless, +usually ringed, covered with old leafbases. Leaves with petioles flat above, rounded below, +fibrous at base; blade up to 10 m long, erect, pinnate with 30 to 50 pairs of leaflets; leaflets +45 cm or less long, stiff, dark-green; flower-stalks from lowest leaves, in woody spathe. +Flowers small; staminate flowers fall as spathe opens; anthers slender, pale, contorted and +spirally twisted. Fruit 7.5 cm long, ovoid, in large grape-like clusters. Flowers February. +Germplasm — Reported from the Middle American Center of Diversity, cohune palm, +or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate limestone, poor soil, sand, slope, savanna, and wa­ +terlogging. 2n = 32.^^ +Distribution — Native to wet Atlantic lowlands of Central America from Mexico to +Honduras and Belize; grown south to Panama and northern South America. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through «Tropical Day Forest Life +Zones, cohune palm is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 40.3 dm (mean of +5 cases = 18.3), annual temperature of 21.3 to 26.5°C (mean of 5 cases = 24.1°C), and +pH of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 3 cases = 6.9). Thrives in tropical swamps and uplands, or in +tropical greenhouses, where night temperatures are not below 15.5°C; occurs from sea-level +to 600 m altitude, and appears on all types of soils, including marls, limestones, granites, +and slate-derived soils, as well as shales and mudstones. Grows in small congested patches. +Occurs also along large streams, on upland sites, on hills and in valleys, preferring rich +pockets of soil.®^’^^® +Cultivation — Lacking basal shoots, the palm is propagated by seed, in rich soil containing +loam, manure, and sand in proportions of 3-1-1. Seeds retain their viability for ca. 6 months. +Seeds should be planted about 5 cm deep and watered freely. Spacings between trees should +allow about lOO/ha.^^® +Harvesting — When freed of competing vegetation, lianas, and epiphytes, each palm +bears prolifically. In natural habitat, trees generally do not bear fruit until crown is free in +the canopy. +Yields and economics — Yields vary; often nuts are not available enough to supply an +oil-mill economically. Large supplies of nuts are not readily available and accessible. Fruits +or nuts are exported from Central America for soapmaking. +Energy — Although not so promising as the babassu for oil production, the germplasm +of the cohune may contribute to building a bigger genetic base for other oleiferous species. +Specific gravity of the wood is 0.868 to 0.971.^^^ +Biotic factors — The following fungi cause diseases in this palm: Achorella attaleae, +Gloeosporium palmigenum, and Poria ravenalae.^^^'^^^ Bruchid beetles may damage the +seeds, destroying both embryo and endosperm. +225 +ORBIGNYA MARTIAN A Barb. Rodr., ORBIGNYA OLEIFERA Burret, ORBIGNYA SPE­ +CIOSA (Mart.) Barb. Rodr. (ARECACEAE) — Babassu +Uses — Babassu kernels taste, smell, and look like coconut meat, but contain more oil. +The oil can be used for the same purposes as coconut oil, for margarine, shortening, general +edibles, toilet soap, fatty acids, and detergents. Unlike many palm oils, the babassu oil does +not quickly turn rancid. Babassu oil is rich in “ practically all of the elements needed in the +manufacture of plastics, detergents, emulsifiers, and many related materials” (H. G. Bennett, +as quoted in Balick^^). The protein- and oil-rich seed cakes are suitable for animal feed. +The endocarp is a good fuel. Leaves are used for thatching. Palm hearts are also eaten. +Folk medicine — The oil is used in medicinal salves. +Chemistry — Atchley^^ cites analyses with 9.4 to 16.2% protein, fat content of 0.2 to +62.9% oil — the higher oil figure possibly representing fruit rather than seed. NAS^^^ notes +that fruit oil may be as high as 72%. Pesce^^^compares the analysis of the coconut with +babassu (Table 1). Mesocarp runs 16.3 to 17% moisture, 1.5 to 4.9% fatty material, 63.8 +to 71.3% starch, 0.0 to 0.8% sugar, dextrim cellulose 2.05%, 3.12 to 3.19% nitrogenated +226 Handbook of Nuts +Table 1 +BABASSU KERNELS AND COCONUT COPRA +Babassu Coconut +(Orbignya martiana) {Cocos nucífera) +(%) +Moisture +4.21 3.80 +Oil +66.12 66.00 +Protein +7.17 7.27 +Digestible carbohydrates 14.47 15.95 +Woody fiber +5.99 4.55 +Ash +2.03 2.43 +From Johnson, D. V ., Ed. and Transl. (Original by Pesce, C.), Oil Palms +and Other Oilseeds of the Amazon Reference Publications, Algonac, M ich., +1985, 199. With permission. +Table 2 +CHEMICAL COMPOSITION +AND PROPERTIES OF +COCONUT AND BABASSU OIL +Coconut oil Babassu oil +Fatty acids +(%) (%) +Saturated +Caproic 0.0—0.8 0.0—0.2 +Caprylic 5.5—9.5 4.0—6.5 +Capric 4.5—9.5 2.7—7.6 +Laurie 44.0—52.0 44.0-46.0 +Myristic 13.0—19.0 15.0—20.0 +Palmitic 7.5— 10.5 6.0—9.0 +Stearic 1.3 3.0—6.0 +Arachidic 0.0—0.4 0.2—0.7 +Unsaturated +Oleic 5.0—8.0 12.0—18.0 +Linoleic 1.5—2.5 +1.4—2.8 +From Eckey, E. W ., Vegetable Fats and Oils, +Reinhold Publishing, New York, 1954. With +permission. +material, 1.2% ash, and 0.3 to 11.4% undetermined. The press-cake has 11.6% moisture, +6.5% oil, 19.8% protein, 40.0% digestible carbohydrates, 16.5% woody fiber, and 5.6% +ash.*^^ Eckeycompares the coconut oil with that of babassu (Table 2). +Description — Tall, erect, smooth-stemmed palm. Leaves erect-declined, large, elegant, +recurved at the flexuous apex; leaflets long, rigid, proximate, oblique-acuminate, disposed +in a vertical plane. Spadix large, ramose, pendent; branches rigid, bracted, dense; female +spadices with many sessile flowers on branches and male flowers abortive, small in the +apices; in male spadices, flowers with small calyx, petals two, rarely three, biquadridentate; +curved inward, overlapped; stamens 24, aggregated in groups of eight; loculus of anthers +irregularly coiled and twisted. Female flowers much larger, ovoid-oblong, bibracted, fer­ +ruginous tomentoso; sepals broadly oblong, obtuse-careened-acuminate; petals slightiy smaller, +oblong, with irregularly serrated margins, at the protracted apex tri-dentate; androecia abor­ +tive, half the number of petals; stigmas 3 to 6. Drupe large, oblong, conical, pointed. +227 +enveloped almost half-way, at the base ferruginous-tomentose and at the apex albo-tomen- +tose, haloed, 3 to 6 seeded. +Germplasm — Reported from the Brazilian Center of Diversity, babassu, or cvs thereof, +is reported to tolerate alkalinity, sand, savanna, and waterlogging, perhaps even brackish +water.^°‘ Taxonomically confusing, the literature has contradictory references to O. martiana, +O. oleifera, and O. speciosa as the true “ Babassu” . The taxon oleifera “ prefers a drier, +semi-deciduous forest” .^^ +Distribution — Babassu ranges from 3 to 10°S latitude and 40 to 70°W longitude in +Brazil. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Dry to Wet through Subtropical Dry to Wet +Forest Life Zones, babassu is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 15 to 60 dm, +annual temperature of 23 to 29°C, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0. Babassu grows best in alkaline or +neutral soils, under average rainfall and good drainage; but it is found in areas of high to +low rainfall, dry to swampy conditions, and generally in siliceous soils. It occurs as isolated +specimens and in solid stands, but principally in mixed hardwood forests, except in Maranhao +and Piaui, on the Pantanal of Mato Grosso and in local areas in some river valleys, where +it may form dense f o r e s t s .T h e day I spent on the bus crossing Maranhao and Piaui +was dominated by panoramas of babassu. +Cultivation — Mostly harvested from the wild, like Brazil-nuts and cashews. While +plantations have been established, little has been done to examine the variability of wild +trees for use in breeding and selection programs. +Harvesting — Slow to mature, babassu may start yielding at 8 years, rising to 12 years, +and bearing for 75 years or longer. While the palm flowers year round, it does not always +set fruit. In Brazil, fruits ripen from July to November, then fall to the ground. After +collection, the fruit is usually dried in the sun to facilitate removing the kernel from the +shell.With an axe and mallet, capable natives can shell up to 8 kg kernels a day, but are +more likely to average 4 to 5 kg a day. +Yields and economics — At an Office of Technology Assessment in 1980, Duke adduced +incredible figures stating that some babassu trees were reported to yield more than a ton of +fruit per year. Of the fruit, 10% is kernel, 50% (to 68%) of which is oil, indicating a yield +of ca. 40 kg oil per tree, or a barrel of oil for every four trees.Assuming a 63 to 70% oil +content per kernel, Balick^^ suggests a possible maximum of ca. 63 kg oil per tree per year, +indeed a living “ oil-factory” . Though individual trees are reported to produce 1000 kg nuts +a year, palms on cultivated plantations have yielded 1,500 kg/ha nuts. The fruit weighs 150 +to 200 g and may contain 3 to 8 kernels containing 60 to 70% oil and constituting 10% of +the fruit’s weight. The kernel is surrounded by a pulp that is 10% starch, enclosed by a +hard woody shell nearly 12 mm thick. The pulp constitutes 20% of the weight of the fruit. +American imports peaked in 1945 at nearly 45,000 tons in a year when Brazil harvested +more than 70,000 tons. In 1974, Brazil produced >200,000 tons babassu kernels worth ca. +500 million cruzeiros. Babassu is probably the only species that could replace coconut in +the production of olein and stearin.Babassu, covering nearly 15 million swampy hectares +in the Amazon and employing nearly 100,000 people in Brazil, has been recommended for +further study and use by the NAS. Back in 1957, Markley^®® noted, “ It is probably the +largest vegetable oil industry in the world wholly dependent on a wild plant, developed from +an indigenous cottage industry and still capable of further expansion.” Markley^®* gives +details of the historical production and value of the Brazilian crop. Pinto^^"^ tabulates data +for 1940 to 1949. +Energy — As early as 1951, Pinto^^"^ noted, “ The shells and husks have proved to be a +source of fuel and when distilled may yield useful hydrocarbon products and also carbon +suitable for gas absorption. The whole nut is occasionally used for the production of oily +smoke in the curing of wild rubber; also, buttons are made from the shells.” Michael Balick^* +228 Handbook of Nuts +says, “ the babassu palm is one of the best sources of fuel in the form of charcoal or coke. +Babassu charcoal bums with a lower content of sulfur, and in some cases has more volatile +material than certain mineral coals.” In Brazil during World War I, the nuts were found +equivalent to coal in heat content, and the husks were easily converted to coke.^^ Analyzing +62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins and Ebeling*"^^ reported a spread of 19.92 to +18.83 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered rice straw to 23.28 MJ/kg for pmne pits. +On a percent DM basis, the husks contained 79.71% volatiles, 1.59% ash, 18.70% fixed +carbon, 50.31% C, 5.37% H, 42.29% O, 0.26% N, 0.04% S, and undetermined residue. +Assuming 250 babassu trees per hectare, Pinto^^^ projects a potential production of 34,932,040 +MT of kernels and (using his 65% figure) >22 million MT oil (or more than 55 million +barrels per year). This is about 15 times 1974 production of ca. 220,000 MT and 1978 +production of ca. 240,000 MT. During World War II, liquid fuels were derived from babassu, +which burned easily and cleanly in diesel engines. Residues can be converted to coke and +charcoal. Clearly, this and other oil palms deserve further study as potential energy sources. +Biotic factors — The tree is sometimes attacked by beetles. Pachymerus nucleorum often +destroy the fallen fmits. +229 +PACHIRA AQUATIC A Aubl. (BOMBACACEAE) — Saba Nut, Malabar Chestnut, Provision +Tree, Maranhau Nut +Uses — According to Sturtevant,^^^ the roasted nuts taste like chestnut, no nut being +better than this nut cooked with salt. Not all nut-eaters would agree. Young leaves and +flowers are also used as a vegetable. The seeds contain 50 to 58% oil, with an aroma +suggesting licorice or fenugreek. Panamanians and/or Colombians make a breadstuff from +powdered roasted seed. UphoP^'* suggests that seeds of large fruited types are used as cacao +substitutes. Choco witch doctors are said to use the seeds as a narcotic (but I’m not sure +that, in fact, they do). Bark yields a yellow dye used to tint sails, fishing nets, and lines. +Folk medicine — Saba nut is a folk remedy for eye ailments and inflammations. Gua­ +temalans use the bark and immature fruits for liver afflictions. Bark, which has demonstrated +antibiotic activity, is used for diabetes in Panama.*® +Chemistry — Per 100 g (ZMB), the seed of Pachira macrocarpa is reported to contain +560 calories, 16.9 g protein, 41.4 g fat, 37.9 g total carbohydrate, 13.1 g fiber, 3.7 g ash, +87.7 mg Ca, 302.3 mg P, 4.0 mg Fe, 76.1 mg Na, 7(X) mg K, 1300 |xg beta-carotene +equivalent, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.06 mg riboflavin, 4.02 mg niacin, and 25.4 mg ascorbic +acid.*^ Seeds contain 58% fat. The seed fats of a Congo specimen contained 46% palmitic, +43% oleic, and 11% linoleic acids. Those of a Sudanian specimen contained 50.7% palmitic +and stearic, 40.8% oleic, and 8.5% linoleic. Those from South America contained 56% +palmitic, 3% stearic, 7.5% oleic, and 5% linoleic acids. There is also a report of 26.5% +cyclopropenoid acids in the seed fat.^^* Bark contains 2.7% tannin. +D^ription — Evergreen tree to 23 m high and 70 cm dbh, often buttressed; outer bark +hard, planar, thin, with weak distant vertical fissures; inner bark thick, reddish, marbled +with white. Leaves palmately compound, glabrous; stipules ovate, ca. 1 cm long; petioles +230 Handbook of Nuts +to 24 cm long, often ribbed, swollen at both ends; leaflets 5 to 7(9), oblong-ovate to elliptic, +caudate-acuminate to apiculate at apex, tapered to an acute base and decurrent on petiolule, +5 to 29 cm long, 3 to 15 cm wide, whitish-lepidote especially below. Flowers sweetly +aromatic, usually solitary in upper axils; pedicels stout, 1 to 5.5 cm long; calyx more or +less tubular, truncate, the lobes obscure; petals 5, valvate, linear, greenish-white to brown, +17 to 34 cm long, ca. 1.5 cm wide, curled outward at anthesis, stellate-puberulent outside, +glabrous to villous inside; stamens many, scarlet in apical third, white basally, erect to +spreading, slightly shorter than petals, variously united in small clusters basally to middle, +the clusters finally uniting with staminal column; anthers horseshoe-shaped, dehiscing by +straightening; ovary broadly ovoid, ca. 1 cm long; style colored like stamens but several +cm longer; stigma of 5 tiny lobes. Capsules reddish-brown, elliptic, oblong-elliptic, or +subglobose, shallowly 5-sulcate, mostly to 20(30) cm long and 10(12) cm wide, the valves +5, densely ferrugineous outside, appressed-silky-pubescent within; seeds usually 2 or 3 per +carpel, irregularly angulate, mostly 3 to 4.5 cm long at maturity, brown, buoyant, embedded +in solid, white, fleshy mesocarp.^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the Latin America Center of Diversity, saba nut, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate drought and waterlogging. The genus apparently contains +only one more species, the very similar Pachira insignis.^^^ +Distribution — Native to the Americas, Mexico to Peru and Brazil, but cultivated in +Angola and the Congo, Florida, and the West Indies. According to R obyns,it ranges +from southern Mexico through Central America to Ecuador, northern Peru and northern +Brazil; often cultivated throughout tropical America, in some isles of the Antilles, in Africa +and Asia. +Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Moist to Wet through Premontane Moist to Wet Forest +Life Zones, saba nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 50 dm, annual +temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 6 to 8.5. Rather pure stands occur, rather typical of +Tropical Moist and Wet Forests in Panama.Apparently confined to riverine and swamp +situations in my experience. The seeds may germinate while floating, striking root when +they lodge on soils. +Cultivation — Menninger^^ says it is grown commercially in the Congo, but I know of +no cultivation, except as a curio, here in America. +Harvesting — Trees as short as 2 m may begin flowering and fruiting.In Panama, +flowering all year though concentrated in February to April; most of the fruits mature from +March to August. New leaves appear around May. +Yields and Economics — With precocious fruiting, the tree may produce many large +fruits, with many large seeds. +Energy — With more than 50% oil, seeds might be viewed as an oilseed candidate for +fresh-water and slightly brackish swamps in the tropical moist to wet forest life zones. +Biotic factors — Pachira insignis is listed as an important alternative host to Steirostoma +breve (Cocoa beetle), major cocoa pest in tropical South America and the Caribbean Is­ +lands. +231 +PAULLINIA CUPANA Kunth ex H.B.K. (SAPINDACEAE) — Guaraña, Uabano, Brazilian +Cocoa +Syn.: Paullinia sorbilis Mart. +Uses — Guaraña is a dried paste, chiefly of crushed seeds, which may be swallowed, +powdered, or made into a beverage. It is a popular stimulant in Brazil among natives who +grate a quantity into the palm of hand, swallow it, and wash it down with water. Taste is +astringent and bitterish, then sweetish. A refreshing guaraña soft drink is made in Brazil +similar to making the ordinary drink, but sweetened and carbonated. Odor is similar to +chocolate. Cultivated by the Indians and seed made into a paste, sold in two grades. Said +to be used also in cordials and liqueurs (fermented with cassava). Brazilian Indians make a +breadstuff from pounded seeds. Tyler^^^ notes that Coca-Cola — Brazil uses guaraña in a +carbonated beverage it markets there. I enjoyed it with rum at the airport in Rio. “ Zoom” , +a rather tasty beverage, has been promoted as a “ cocaine” substitute. Menninger calls it +“ the most exciting nut in the world” . Erickson et al.^^ mention the product “ guaraña flor” , +a flour extracted from burned flowers. +Folk medicine — A nervine tonic and stimulant, the drug owes its properties to caffeine. +Used for cardiac derangements, headaches, especially those caused by menstrual or rheumatic +derangements, intestinal disorders, migraine and neuralgia. Action is sometimes diuretic, +and used for rheumatic complaints and lumbago. Said also to alleviate fever, heat stress. +232 Handbook of Nuts +and heart ailments. With words like aphrodisiac, diet, narcotic, and stimulant associated +with guaraña in the herbal literature, it is little wonder that the herb has excited curiosity +among avante-garde Americans. Promotional literature states that guaraña outsells Coke in +Brazil, suggesting that Amazon natives sniff the powdered seeds, and stating (wrongly or +rightly) that guaraña decreases fatigue and curtails hunger. However, Latin Americans used +the plant mainly as a stimulant and for treating chronic diarrhea and headache.People +accustomed to guaraña swear “ that it improves health, helps digestion, prevents sleepiness, +increases mental activity” , and many whisper that it also improves sexual activity, but “ it +might act as a limiting factor to fertility(Pio Correa, as quoted in Menninger^^). +Chemistry — Indians in South America also made an alcoholic beverage from the seeds +along with cassava and water. Guaraña contains guaranine, an alkaloid similar to theine of +tea and caffeine of coffee; about 2.5 to 5% caffeine; and 5 to 25% tannin, as catechutannic +acid. An 800 mg tablet of “ Zoom” is said to contain ca. 60 mg caffeine.Adenine, +catechin, choline, guanine, hypoxanthine, resin, saponins, theobromine, theophylline, tim- +bonine, and xanthine are reported, in addition to the caffeine.^®® +Toxicity — May be quite high in caffeine (possibly the highest of any plant).Dysuria +often follows its administration. Has been approved for food use (§172.510). In humans, +caffeine, 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, is demethylated into three primary metabolites: theo­ +phylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine. Since the early part of the 20th century, theo­ +phylline has been used in therapeutics for bronchodilation, for acute ventricular failure, and +for long-term control of bronchial asthma. At 100 mg/kg theophylline is fetotoxic to rats, +but no teratogenic abnormalities were noted. In therapeutics, theobromine has been used as +a diuretic, as a cardiac stimulant, and for dilation of arteries. But at 100 mg, theobromine +is fetotoxic and teratogenic.^^ Leung^^® reports a fatal dose in man at 10,000 mg, with 1,000 +mg or more capable of inducing headache, nausea, insomnia, restlessness, excitement, mild +delirium, muscle tremor, tachycardia, and extrasystoles. Leung also adds “ caffeine has been +reported to have many other activities including mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic +activities; . . . to cause temporary increase in intraocular pressure, to have calming effects +on hyperkinetic children . . . to cause chronic recurring headache . . . ” . +Description — Large, woody, evergreen perennial, twining or climbing vine to 10 m +tall, usually cultivated as a shrub; leaves small, pinnate, 5-foliolate, alternate, stipulate, 10 +to 20 cm long, the petiole 7 to 15 cm long, flowers in axillary racemes, yellow; the sepals +3 to 5, 3 mm long, petals 3 to 5 mm long, hairy; fruit a 3-valved capsule with thin partitions, +in clusters like grapes, pear-shaped, 3-sided; seed(s) globose or ovoid, about the size of a +filbert, purplish-brown to brown or blackish, half enclosed in the aril, flesh-colored, white, +yellow, or red, easily separated when dry. Germination cryptocotylar, the eophylls unifo- +liolate.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, guaraña, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate a pronounced dry season.®^ +Distribution — Native to the Brazilian Amazon Basin, especially in the region of Maues, +in the valley of the Papajoz River, below Manaos,^®"^ in the upper regions of the Orinoco +Valley in southwestern Venezuela, and in the Moist Evergreen Forests of northern Brazil. +It has been reported in parts of Uruguay and was introduced in Sri Lanka and France (1817) +from South America.It seems to be thriving at the New Alchemist’s outpost in Gandoca, +Costa Rica (TMF). +Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist through Subtropical Moist to Wet Forest +Life Zones, guaraña is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 24 dm and annual +temperature of 23 to 27°C.®^ Guaraña grows naturally in deep acidic oxisols, where there +is a pronounced dry season from June to September. Flowering commences at the end of +the rainy season. The plant does not tolerate soil compaction. Although guaraña was originally +a swamp creeper in the moist evergreen forests of the Amazon, it has been more successfully +233 +grown on well-drained black sandy soils. Plants do not do well when cultivated on yellow +clay soils. +Cultivation — Guaraña is obtained from both wild and cultivated plants.Pio Correa, +however, states that the plants are never found wild.^^^ Since seeds require about 3 months +to germinate, cultivated guaraña is usually propagated by shoots. Young shoots are spaced +about 7 m apart, and a triangular bower is built over each plant to provide support for the +climbing vine. Or seedlings may be spaced at 4 x 4 m (625 plants per ha) or 3 x 3 m +(1,100 plants per ha). Young plants should be shaded. Leguminous ground covers are often +established between the plants (P ueraria, V id a ). It has been suggested as an intercrop for +B actris gasipaes. It can be planted among growing cassava plants. Planting is usually in +February and March. Once established, plants require practically no care, except for +weeding. +Harvesting — Plants begin to flower and produce a small quantity of fruit when about +3 years old. Production increases with maturity, and vines live about 40 years. Fruits, like +clusters of grapes, are hand-picked in October, November, and December, after they have +ripened. As soon as the berries are harvested, they are thoroughly soaked in water, passed +over a sieve to remove the seeds from the white pulp (aril) that surrounds them and the +seeds placed in the sun to dry. After drying, seeds are immediately baked or roasted for +half a day to prevent fermentation, which sets in rapidly after the fruit is picked from the +vine. Seeds are roasted over a slow fire in clay ovens, skillfully, so that all seeds are equally +toasted and not burned. Roasted seeds, removed from the ovens, are separated from their +dry paper-thin shells by rubbing in the palm of the hands or by placing them in sacks and +beating them with clubs. Then the kernels are macerated with mortar and pestle. The coarse +powder produced is mixed with a little water and kneaded into a paste which is shaped into +cylindrical sticks or loaves ca. 2.5 cm in diameter and 12 to 30 cm long, weighing about +225 g each (about 1/2 lb). These “ cakes” are dried and smoked for about 60 days in an +open-fire drying house, where they require a dark chocolate-brown color and a metallic +hardness. Crude guaraña is sold on the market in this form, which will keep for many +years. +Yields and economics — A mature guaraña shrub or vine averages 1.3 to 5.0 kg/year +seed, occasionally yielding 9 kg; still, yields run only 77 to 175 kg dried seed per hectare. +In past decades, Brazil produced about 80 MT of guaraña paste annually, and exported about +50 MT. Herbal interests may have stimulated trade since then. About 6,(X)0 ha are now +cultivated, much of it in the Brazilian county of Maues, which produces ca. 80% of the +world’s supply as of 1980.^^’^^® +Energy — Lacking biomass data for this species, I will suggest that the pods, as residue, +might equal or exceed in quantity the biomass of the harvested seeds. The pulp and aril +probably represent less biomass, also a waste product. Prunings might be used for fuel wood. +Biotic factors — The most severe fungus known to attack guaraña is C olletotrichum +guaranicola Alb., which attacks the foliage and inflorescence. “ Black speckle” , caused +also by C olletotrichum sp., can be controlled by such compounds as benomyl, captafol, +macozeb, and methyl thiophanate. Fusarium decem ceH arare Brick, (so-called “ trunk gall” ), +causing a proliferation of buds resulting in large masses of nonproductive tissue, can kill +the plant. A red root rot is caused by G anoderm a ph ilip p i (Bres. & P. Henn.) Bres., causing +yellowing of the foliage, gradual decline, often followed by death. Pollination is by insects, +primarily bees and wasps; ants are also numerous. +234 Handbook of Nuts +PHYTELEPHAS MACROCARP A Ruiz and Pav. (ARECACEAE) — Ivory Nut Palm, Tagua +Uses — In Ecuador, they have “ commercialized” the hard, compact, heavy, brilliant +seeds, so highly valued for their thousand uses, and industrial applications, especially in +the button industry. The cabbage is quite edible, usually cooked, and the young fruits make +a beverage said to be just as good as coconut water; older fruits become thicker and more +mucilaginous or gelatinous, at which time it may be spooned out as a custard. Finally, they +harden as the “ vegetable ivory.” More recently, it has been used in polishing compounds +for the metals finishing industry. The roots are boiled to make a beverage. Refuse from the +button “ tumerys” can be made into cattle food and it is less legitimately used as a coffee +substitute, probably after scorching. According to Gohl,^^® ivory nut meal can be used for +all classes of livestock without any particular restrictions. Durable leaves used for thatch, +the stems are split and used for flooring. Empty spathes have been used as very durable +broom heads. +Folk Medicine — A liquid prepared by boiling the roots is considered diuretic in Ecuador. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seeds contain (ZMB) 5.3 g protein, 1.6 g fat, 91.6 g total +carbohydrate, 9.3 g fiber, and 1.5 g ash.^^® Seeds may contain 40% Mannan A and 25% +235 +Mannan B. Mannan A yields on hydrolysis 97.6% mannose, 1.8% galactose, and 0.8% +glucose. Mannan B yields 98.3% mannose, 1.1% galactose, and 0.8% glucose. Nuts are +said to contain the alkaloid phytelephantin. Personal correspondence reveals that it is the +raw material for the preparation of the sugar D-mannose. D-mannan has shown some antitumor +activity. +Description — Acaulescent or short-stemmed diocecious palms to 20 m tall, 70 cm DBH. +Leaves pinnate, to 4 m long, 15 to 30 in the rosette, leaflets in a single plane, to 70 cm +long. Male flowers in elongate cluster to 2 m long. Female flowers in heads to 50 cm long +with perianth, the tepals to 30 cm long. Ovary 4- to 6-locular; style with 4 to 9 long lobes. +Germplasm — Reported from the Tropical American Center of Diversity, tagua, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate rocky soil, shade, and temporary waterlogging. +Distribution — Panama to Brazil, Venezuela, and Ecuador. Although a species of mature +forest, it is often left to stand in cleared pastures and banana plantations. +Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Rain through Tropical Moist +to Rain Forest Life Zones, tagua is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 110 +dm, annual temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0. Sometimes gregarious; said +to “ prefer” naturally drained or porous soils, but flourishes on some rocky terrain and in +clay alluvial terraces. Ranges from sea level to 1800 m above sea level. +Cultivation — Tagua is rarely cultivated. There have been a few plantations started in +Ecuador, mountaineers merely scattering the seeds and weeding them, perhaps thinning them +occasionally. Seeds begin to germinate in 3 to 4 months. Young plants may need protection +from the sun. +Harvesting — A tagua may mature in 10 years, faster than commonly believed,^ starting +flowering only at 14 to 15 years (BurkilF^ says they start fruiting at 6 years), such that the +fruit appears to arise from the ground. Then the females produce fruits “ uninterruptably” +every subsequent year, a palm lasting for centuries in the mountains. Fruiting occurs through­ +out the year. When collectors are in too big a hurry, they may destructively fell the tree, +which kills it, unable to coppice. The unripe fruits thus obtained, are artificially matured +under organic matter, becoming the “ blond” tagua, as opposed to the “ dark” or “ black” +tagua. Leaves to be used for thatching are first fermented for 8 to 15 days. +Yields and economics — Well-developed palms produce 15 to 16 mazorcas (clusters), +each of which weighs 8 to 15 (to 19) kg. Twelve inflorescences will yield 100 pounds of +seeds with their shells, or ca. 60 pounds of shelled seed. Seeds may weigh up to 240 g. +Burkill figures that each tree produces 45 to 100 kg fruits per yr for 50 to 100 years. Back +in 1948, Acosta-Solis^ noted that a good price was about $0.70/l(X) lb. In 1928, Esmeraldas +Ecuador exported more than 1000 tons of seeds, 1929 being the highest year ever, with +nearly 2200 tons exported, dwindling down to 500 tons by 1941, and almost nothing after +that. In New York, in 1941, the Esmeraldas tagua was worth only ca. $2.00/100 lb, a mere +$0.10/kg.2 +Energy — Phytelephas microcarpa is said to produce a valuable oil.^^* +Biotic factors — In Ecuador, a coleopteous larva attacks the stem, destroying the pith, +and often killing the tree; superficially this resembles the larva of Rhynchophorus palmarum. +Dryocoetes sp. (Coleóptera) may attack the fruit.^ +236 Handbook of Nuts +PINUS EDULIS Engelm. (PINACEAE) — Piñón, Pine Nut, Nut Pine, Silver Pine +Syn.: P in u s cem broides var. edu lis (Engelm.) Voss and C aryopitys edu lis Small. +Uses — The State Tree of New Mexico, this species furnishes the piñón nuts or Indian +nuts of commerce. Piñón nuts are evident in the firepots of the Gatecliff Shelter, Nevada, +carbon-dated at 6000 years. Nuts (seeds) considered main article of subsistence by Indians +of California, Nevada, and Utah, eaten raw or, more frequently, roasted. Nuts have a rather +disagreeable flavor but are highly nutritious, rich in protein. Seeds are smaller but tastier +than those of the single-leaf piñón. In spring, buds at ends of limbs, inner bark, and core +of cone (which is something like cabbage stalk when green) are eaten. Wood is mainly used +for fuel and fenceposts; infrequently the tree-form is used for lumber of fair quality. The +piñón wood was also used in Indian construction. The pitch was used as a glue for water­ +proofing jugs, as a black dye for blankets, and to repair pottery. Navajo smeared piñón +pitch on a corpse prior to burial. Hopi dabbed it on their foreheads to protect them against +sorcery. Navajo used it for incense. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the pitch is used in folk remedies for tumors +of the fingers and external cancers. Reported to be antiseptic and suppurative, the plant is +used as a folk remedy for boils, bugbites, laryngitis, myalgia, pneumonia, sores, sore throat, +swellings, syphilis, and wounds. Various parts of the plant are used medicinally by Indians: +crushed nuts for treatment of bums or scalds; smoke from burning branches for coughs, +colds, and rheumatism; and pitch for sores and wounds. Fumes of burning pitch were inhaled +by Indians for headcold, cough, and earache.^' +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the “nut” is reported to contain 714 calories, 3.0 g H2O, 14.3 +g protein, 60.9 g fat, 18.1 g total carbohydrate, 1.1 g fiber, and 2.7 g ash.®^ +Description — Straggling tree, forming a broad, pyramid-shaped crown in young trees +and later becoming round-topped, to 15 m tall, usually smaller; diameter to nearly 1 m; +tmnk often crooked and twisted; bark irregularly furrowed and broken into small scales. +Leaves mostly 2 to a fascicle, sometimes with varying proportions of 1- or 3-needled +fascicles, 2 to 4 (5) cm long, sharp-pointed, margins entire, sheaths of the fascicles deciduous, +the odor of the crushed foliage fragrant. Staminate cones about 6 mm long, yellow, soon +fading. Ovulate cones subterminal or lateral, 2 to 5 cm long, nearly as wide, ovoid, usually +brown at maturity, short-stalked, the scales becoming thickened, 2 to 6 mm long, 4-sided, +knobbed at the apex, the dorsal umbo inconspicuous; seeds large, 10 to 16 mm long, brown, +wingless, thick-shelled; cotyledons 6 to 10.^® +Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, piñón, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate severe climatic conditions, including low relative humidity, +very high evaporation, intense sunlight, low rainfall, hot summers, slope, weeds, and alkaline +237 +soil.^^ Piñón, or pine nuts, refer to the seeds of several pine species which grow along the +western area of North America from British Columbia southward into Mexico. P inus cem - +broides Zucc., or Mexican nut-pine, occurs in mountains of central and northern Mexico +and extends northward into New Mexico and southeastern Arizona; it is a tree to 20 m tall +with needles in fascicles of 3, bright green, 2.5 to 5 cm long, and seeds more or less +cylindrical to obscurely triangular and somewhat compressed at apex, about 1.5 to 2 cm +long. Pinus m onophylla Torr., or single-leaf piñón, occurs from Utah and Nevada, south +to Baja California and Arizona; it is a tree up to 7 m tall with the needles occurring singly, +or rarely in pairs, rather pale glaucous green, about 3.5 cm long, and seeds 1.3 to 1.5 cm +long and oblong. Hybrids between P. edulis and P. m onopylla are produced naturally, +especially in Utah; such trees have both 1 or 2 needles per fascicle, and other anatomical +features of the leaves are intermediate between the two species. Artificial hybrids have also +been produced with similar characteristics. P. edulis var. albo-variegata Hort. has white +leaves mixed with the green leaves. +D istrib u tion — Dry rocky places in the Colorado Plateau region of southwest Wyoming, +Utah, western Colorado, extreme western tip of Oklahoma, western Texas, New Mexico, +adjacent Chihuahua, Mexico, and eastern Arizona.^® +E cology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Thom to Wet through Subtropical Moist +Forest Life Zones, piñón, or cvs thereof, is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 +to 21 dm (mean of 3 cases = 15), annual temperature of 15 to 21 °C (mean of 3 cases = +18), and pH of 5.0 to 8.5 (mean of 3 cases = 5.1).*^ To 1500 to 2750 m elevation. Thrives +on high tablelands at elevations from 1,600 to 3,000 m altitude, on shallow, rocky soil, +where annual rainfall of 30 to 45 cm and climate is arid. Sometimes forms pure groves but +more often grows along with oak, juniper, or yellow pine.^^^ Hardy to Zone 5.^"^^ +C u ltivation — Trees or shmbby plants cultivated by Indians as far north as British +Columbia. Propagated from seeds scattered over ground. Not apparently cultivated in any +orderly fashion. Elsewhere grown as an ornamental. Trees are slow-growing, and often form +a compact shmb.^^* +H arvestin g — Cone matures in August or September of second season and sheds seed +shortly thereafter. Seeds are gathered in quantities in favorable seasons. Indians usually +collect nuts from the ground after cones have opened, or beat the nuts loose from their cones +with poles. Present-day nut-collectors, who often collect the nuts for recreation and then +sell them to local groceries, break off cone-bearing limbs, or tear green cones loose with +garden rakes, causing serious damage to trees, thus lowering their productivity. Nuts are +dried and sorted much like other nuts. They have unusual keeping qualities and may be +stored for as much as 3 years without becoming rancid. +Y ields and econ om ics — No data available, as most nuts are collected from wild plants +which vary widely in their size and productivity. Trees do not bear regularly nor equally +fruitfully. Piñón is considered a staple food for some Indian groups, both for themselves +and as an article for selling at markets, especially in New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico. +Prices range to as much as $2.85 per pound in retail groceries. +E nergy — Historically, the wood, the cones, the needles, and the pitches and resins of +pines have been used as energy sources. Scandinavians have even adapted automobile engines +to run on turpentine-like compounds. Although the seeds may run more than 50% oil, they +seem better adapted to edible than to energy ends. +B iotic factors — A gricu ltu re H an dbook 165"^ lists the following as affecting this species: +Arceuthobium cam pylopodum Engelm. f. divaricatum (western dwarf mistletoe), A rm illaria +m ellea (root rot), C oleosporium crow ellii (needle rust), C. jo n esii (needle rust), C ronartium +occidentale (piñón blister rust), D iplo d ia pin ea (seedling blight), E lytroderm a deform ans +(needle cast, witches’-broom). P om es p in i (butt and heartwood rot), and H ypoderm a sac- +catum. (needle cast)."^ Wild animals also collect the nuts. +238 Handbook of Nuts +PINUS QUADRIFOLIA Pari, ex Sudw. (PINACEAE) — Parry’s Pine-Nut, Piñón +Syn.: P in u s cem broides var. p a rra ya n a (Engelm.) Voss and P in u s p a rra ya n a Engelm. +Uses — Nuts (seeds), which are rich in proteins, are used as an important food supply +by Mexicans and Indians, in Lower California especially. Seeds are eaten raw or in con­ +fections under name of pignolia. Taste is that of piney-flavored peanuts, except that the +meat is softer. Dense foliage makes the tree desirable as an ornamental tree in cultivation. +Trees also used in environmental forestry, as watershed, and as habitat or food for wildlife.^ +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the ointment derived from the pitch is said +to be a folk remedy for external cancers. Duke and Wain^‘ report Parry’s pine-nut to be a +folk remedy for cancer. +Chemistry — No data available. +Description — Evergreen trees to 12.3 m tall, with thick, spreading branches forming a +pyramid, eventually becoming round-topped and irregular. Needles stout, in fascicles of 4, +not over 3.5 cm long, pale glaucous green, incurved, irregularly deciduous, mostly falling +the third year. Cones subglobose, chestnut-brown, lustrous, 3.5 to 5 cm broad, broadly +ovate, compact until mature; scales thick, pyramidal, conspicuously keeled, umbo with +minute prickle. Seeds few, large, dark red-brown, mottled, about 1.3 cm long; shell thin +and brittle. Fruit matures in August or September of second season. Hybridizes with P. +monophylla, single-leaf piñón, from border of U.S. into Baja California, Mexico.Fruit +green before ripening; yellowish or reddish-brown when ripe. Flowers June; cone ripens in +September; seeds dispersed September to October.^ +Germplasm — Reported from the Middle America Center of Diversity, Parry’s pine- +nut, or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, heat, poor soil, and slope. +Distribution — Native at low elevations of southern California and northern Baja Cali­ +fornia, Mexico. Not hardy north ward. Most abundant of piñón pines. There are very +dense and extensive stands in the Sierra Juarez and the Sierra San Pedro Mártir, which +produce tremendous quantities of piñón nuts.^^^ +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest Life +Zones, Parry’s pine-nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 10.3 to 21.4 dm (mean +of 2 cases = 15.9), annual temperature of 21.2°C, and pH of 5.0 to 5.3 (mean of 2 cases += 5.2).*^ Thrives on arid mesas and low mountain slopes on well-drained soils. Tolerates +high temperatures and low rainfall; very drought-resistant.^^® +Cultivation — Trees not known to be in cultivation for the nuts. Sometimes trees are +cultivated as ornamentals. Propagated from seed, mainly distributed naturally.First cul­ +tivated in 1885. Germination hastened and improved by cold stratification of stored seeds +for up to 30 days at 0° to 5°C in a moist medium.^ +Harvesting — Natives usually collect nuts from the ground after cones have opened, or +they beat nuts loose from cones with long poles. Present-day nut-collectors, who often collect +the nuts for recreation and then sell them to local groceries, break off cone-bearing branches, +or tear green cones loose with garden rakes, causing serious damage to trees, thus lowering +their productivity. Nuts have good keeping qualities and unshelled piñón nuts can be stored +for 3 years without becoming rancid. Piñón nuts mature in the second season during August +and September.There is a 1- to 5-year interval between large seed crops. Seeds are dried +for 2 to 8 days. Seeds may be collected by shaking the tree and collecting seeds on a cloth +spread on the ground.^ +Yields and economics — In California, between 820 and 1,200 (average 960) seeds per +pound were collected from three samples.^ Exact yield data are difficult to obtain, as fruiting +is uneven, and nearly all piñón nuts are harvested from wild plants, which may be scattered. +Nuts form a very important item of the diet for some Mexicans and Indians, especially in +Baja California, and are sold in markets from San Diego southward, for as much as $2.85 +per Ib.^^® +239 +Energy — Historically, the wood, the cones, the needles, and the pitches and resins of +pines have been used as energy sources. Scandinavians have even adapted automobile engines +to run on turpentine-like compounds. Although the seeds may run more than 50% oil, they +seem better adapted to edible than to energy ends. +Biotic factors — This piñón nut tree is attacked by a fungus, Hypoderma sp. and may +be parasitized by the mistletoe, Arceiithobium campylopodum.^^^ +240 Handbook of Nuts +PISTACIA VERA L. (PISTACIACEAE) — Pistachio +Uses — Pistachio is cultivated for the nut, rich in oil, eaten roasted, salted, or used to +flavor confections and ice cream. Arabs call the nut “ Fustuk” . The outer husk of the fruit, +used in India for dyeing and tanning, is imported from Iran. The fruit is the source of a +non-drying oil. In Iran, Bokhara Galls of Gul-i-pista, are used for tanning.The nuts are +much liked by squirrels and some birds, including bluejays and red-headed woodpeckers. +The wood is excellent for carving and cabinet work.*^^ In Iran, fruit husks are made into +marmalade; they are also used as fertilizer. +Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the nuts are said to be a folk remedy for +scirrhus of the liver. Reported to be anodyne and decoagulant, pistachio is a folk remedy +for abdominal ailments, abscess, amenorrhea, bruises, chest ailments, circulation problems, +dysentery, dysmenorrhea, gynecopathy, pruritus, sclerosis of the liver, sores, and trauma. +Algerians used the powdered root in oil for children’s cough. Iranians infused the fruits’ +outer husk for dysentery. Lebanese used the leaves as compresses, believing the nuts en­ +hanced fertility and virility.Arabs consider the nuts to be digestive, aphrodisiac, and tonic. +They are used medicinally in East India. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 624 to 627 calories, 19.7 +to 20.4 g protein, 56.4 to 56.7 g fat, 20.1 to 20.6 g total carbohydrate, 2.0 g fiber, 2.9 to +3.3 g ash, 138 mg Ca, 528 mg P, 7.7 mg Fe, 1026 mg K, 146 jjig beta-carotene equivalent, +0.71 mg thiamine, 1.48 mg niacin, and 0.0 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Galls produced on leaves +contain 45% tannin. Tannin contains gallotanic acid, gallic acid, and an oleo-resin, to which +the odor is due.^^® Low in sugar (ca. 8%), high in protein (ca. 20%) and oil (>50%). The +oil is nearly 90% unsaturated fatty acid (70% oleic and 20% linoleic fatty acid).^^^ The +241 +edible portion of the nuts contains 9.0 ppm Al, 0.02 As, 0.002 Au, 11 B, 0.1 Ba, 16 Br, +1066 Ca, 0.04 Cd, 408 Cl, 0.2 Co, 0.6 Cr, 0.1 Cs, 33 Cu, 0.1 Eu, 3.8 F, 46 Fe, 0.1 Hg, +51 I, 8639 K, 0.02 La, 0.01 Lu, 949 Mg, 3.4 Mn, 538 Na, 1.1 Ni, 0.8 Pb, 10 Rb, 960 S, +0.05 Sb, 0.004 Sc, 0.1 Se, 0.03 Sm, 0.4 Sn, 10 Sr, 0.4 Th, 3.1 Ti, 0.01 V, 0.1 W, 0.1 +Yb, and 30 ppm Zn dry weight. The normal concentration of some of these elements in +land plants are 50 ppm B, 14 Ba, 15 Br, 2000 Cl, 0.5 Co, 0.2 Cs, 14 Cu, 3.200 Mg, 630 +Mn, 3 Ni, 20 Rb, 3,400 S, 26 Sr, and 0.2 ppm Se dry weight. They were higher in copper, +fluorine, iodine, and potassium, and they were equal or higher in europium and thorium +than any of the 12 nut species studied by Furr et al. Moyer^^^ reports pistachios to contain, +per 100 g edible portion, 594 calories, 19.3 g protein, 53.7 g fat, 19.0 g carbohydrates, +5.3% water, 131 mg Ca, 500 mg P, 7.3 mg Fe, 972 mg K, and 158 mg Mn. An analysis +of pistachio kernels in the Wealth of India gave the following values per 100 g: 5.6% +moisture, 19.8% protein, 53.5% fat, 16.2% carbohydrates, 2.1% fiber, 2.8% mineral matter, +0.14% Ca, 0.43% P, 13.7 mg Fe, 240 I.U. carotene (as vitamin A), 0.67 mg thiamine, +0.03 mg riboflavin, 1.4 mg nicotinic acid, no vitamin C, and 626 calories. The fatty acid +composition of the oil is 0.6% myristic, 8.2% palmitic, 1.6% stearic, 69.6% oleic, and +19.8% linoleic acids. Galls contain 50% tannins. Both young and mature leaves contain +shikimic acid.^® +D escrip tion — Slow-growing, long-lived (700 to 15(X) years), small, dioecious bushy +tree, to 10 m tall, developing a large trunk with age; branches pendant. Leaves odd-pinnate, +the 3 to 11 leaflets ovate, slightly tapering at the base. Flowers dioecious, without petals, +brownish-green, small, in axillary racemes or panicles; pedicels bracted at base; staminate +flowers with 5-cleft calyx and 5 very short stamens with large anthers; pistillate flowers +with 3 to 4 cleft calyx, 1-celled sessile ovary and short 3-cleft style. Fruit a dry, ovoid to +oblong, pedicelled drupe, up to 2.5 cm long, reddish and wrinkled, enclosing 2 yellow- +green oily cotyledons (kernel). Flowers early summer; fruits August to September. +G erm p lasm — Reported from the Central Asia Center of Diversity, pistachio, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, frost, and heat.®^ Many varieties of pistachio have +been developed, because the crop has been grown for several thousand years, most are +named after the area in which they were cultivated. Iranian: light-yellow kernel, larger size +but lacks oily nut flavor; Sicilian, Syrian, and Turkish: almost green kernel throughout, with +good flavor; Afghan and Italian: deep-green kernels prefered for ice cream and pastry. In +Syria, district cvs are ‘Alemi’, ‘Achoury’, ‘Aijimi’, ‘Aintab’, ‘Ashoori’, ‘El Bataury’, +‘Mirhavy’. In Sicily: ‘Trabonella’, and ‘Bronte’. In California, 13 cvs have been tested: +‘Ibrahmim’, ‘Owhadi’, ‘Safeed’, ‘Shasti’, ‘Wahedi’ (largest nuts of any cv). In Turkey: +‘Uzun’ (nuts 34 to 36 mm long) and ‘Kirmizi’ (red-hulled, thin-shelled, free-splitting, green- +kemeled, containing 20.3% protein and 65.47% oil).^^® Joley^^^ reports on cvs being tested +at Chico, California. Male cv ‘Peters’, nearest to a universal pollinator, coincides well with +‘Red Aleppo’ and ‘Trabonella’ (early blossoming) and with ‘Kerman’ (late blossoming). +Cultivar ‘Chico’ provides a supplement to ‘Peters’. The first nut-bearing cvs tested at Chico +were ‘Bronte’, ‘Buenzle’, ‘Minassian’, ‘Red Aleppo’, ‘Sfax’, and ‘Trabonella’. The most +promising in quality and greeness of kernels are ‘Bronte’, ‘Red Aleppo’, and ‘Trabonella’. +‘Kerman’ is liked by importers and processors for its size, crispness, and snap when bitten +into and chewed. A sister seedling of ‘Kerman’, ‘Lassen’, also produces good quality large­ +sized nuts.^^^ (2n = 30.) +D istrib u tion — Native to Near East and Western Asia from Syria to Caucasus, and +Afghanistan, forming pure stands at altitudes up to 1(XK) m; pistachio has been introduced +and is now cultivated in many subtropical areas of the world, such as China, India, the +Mediterranean, and U.S. (Arizona, California, and Florida). +E cology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry through Subtropical Thom to Dry Forest +Life Zones, pistachio is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.7 to 11.2 dm (mean +242 Handbook of Nuts +of 7 cases = 6.2 dm), annual temperature of 14.3°C to 26.2°C (mean of 7 = 18.8°C), and +pH of 7.1 to 7.8 (mean of 4 cases = 7.6).^^ Hardy to Zone Pistachio requires cold +winters (to - 18°C) and long hot dry summers (to 38°C) to mature. Philippe^^^ assumes it +requires 600 to 1500 hours below TC to meet its chilling requirements. In Iran, it grows +at 1200 m elevation on desert plateau. In Turkey and California it grows in the same areas +as olives and almonds, but flowers later in the spring than almonds, and is less susceptible +to fruit injury. Requires from 30 to 45 cm annual rainfall, any less may need irrigation, but +requires less than most other culitvated fruit and nut trees. Soils should be deep, friable, +and well-drained but moisture-retaining; the root is deep-penetrating.^^® It can, however, +survive in poor, stony, calcareous highly alkaline or slightly acid, or even saline soils. +C u ltivation — Trees are difficult to transplant; green seed (nuts) are planted in their +permanent place. Other species of Pistacia are used as stock upon which to bud pistachio. +Care should be taken to select areas for the pistachio orchard which are protected from wind, +as in a valley, with less exposure to cold, and with soil relatively free of sand but possessing +the ability to retain moisture. After planting, soil should be cultivated periodically for 5 to +7 years, by which time the trees are 2 to 3 m tall. Branches of selected cvs are then bud- +grafted (2 buds per tree to insure at least one taking) on new trees. Male varieties shedding +pollen during the first half of female blooming period should be selected. In California, +male varieties ‘Peters’ and ‘Chico 23’ correspond well to female ‘Red Aleppo’, ‘Trabonella’, +and ‘Bronte’. One male tree should be planted to 7 or 8 females. Plantings should be about +9 m apart under irrigation, farther apart without irrigation. Pistachio responds favorably to +applications of nitrogen. After grafting, 4 to 6 years are required before trees begin to bear. +The trees do not bear fully until they are 20 to 25 years old, and continue to bear for 40 to +60 years or more. Pistachio trees are delicate, and production of nuts is influenced by excess +of rain, drought, excessive heat or cold, and high winds. +H arvestin g — Harvest period is August to September in most areas. It is best to harvest +the whole tree when most of the crop is ripe. Nuts can be knocked from trees. Clusters of +nuts are removed, allowed to dry 3 days on the ground, and beaten or stamped on to separate +the nuts from the clusters. They are then put in a tank of water to soak for 12 hr, and then +stamped on or beaten to remove the outer green husk. Finally, they are washed and dried +in the sun.'^^’^^® +Y ield s and econ om ics — Adult trees yield an average of 11.25 kg annually. Three kg +unshelled nuts yield 1 kg shelled.^^® Joley’^^ reports on the average yield of four pistachio +CVS per tree per year since start of production: ‘Kerman’ 22.45 kg dry weight, 15 years in +production; ‘Bronte’ 11.25 kg dry weight, 14 years in production; ‘Trabonella’ 6.35 kg dry +weight, 12 years in production; and ‘Red Aleppo’ 4.50 kg dry weight, 12 years in production. +For 8- to 15-year old trees in Jordan, Philippe^^^ estimates yields at 2 to 8 kg in shell per +tree, 200 to 800 kg/ha, for 16- to 30-year-old trees, 8 to 30 kg per tree, 800 to 2,400 kg/ha. +In 1976, the yield of American pistachios was 150,000 lbs; in 1979, more than 17 million +lbs. Yields of 50 to 150 lbs per tree are reported in California.Duke®^ reports 7 kg fruit +per plant. Nuts are marketed mostly unshelled and salted. Soaked in a brine solution, they +are quickly dried in the sun or in artificial driers to prevent development of surface mold. +Before marketing the shell is cracked for consumer convenience. “ Red” pistachios are +roasted, salted, and shell is colored with a vegetable dye; “ White” pistachios are roasted +and shell coated with a mixture of salt and cornstarch; “ Naturals” have only salt added +after roasting.^^® In 1979, the revolution in Iran caused the world’s main pistachio supply +to disappear, which in turn caused prices to rise from $1.25/lb in 1978 to $2.05/lb in 1980. +In 1982, the American crop of 43 million pounds of pistachios was valued at more than $60 +million. Indications are that the U.S. crop will be 70 to 80 million pounds by the 1990s, +eventually topping 120 million pounds. +E n ergy — The wood has a specific gravity of 0.9179 to 0.92(X),^^'* and is said to make +243 +an excellent fireplace wood.*^^ Analyzing 62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins +and Ebeling’"^^ reported a spread of 19.26 to 18.06 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered +rice straw to 23.28 MJ/kg for prune pits. On a percent DM basis, the shells contained 82.03% +volatiles, 1.13% ash, 16.85% fixed carbon, 48.79% C, 5.91% H, 43.41% O, 0.56% N, +0.01% S, 0.04% Cl, and undetermined residue. +B iotic facto rs — Pollination is by wind or air drift. Many insects are serious crop- +destroying pests and should be controlled; an aphid (Anapleura lentisci) is one such pest. +Numerous fungi, causing serious damage, attack pistachio: A lternaría tenuissim a, A stero- +m ella pistaciaru m , C ladosporiu m herbarum , C ylindrosporium garbow skii, C. p ista cia e, +C ytospora teretinthi, F am es rim osus, Fusarium roseum , F. solani, M onilia p ista cia , O zon- +ium auriconium , P apu lospora sp., P hellinus rim osus, P hleospora p ista cia e, P hyllactin ia +suffulta, P h yllosticta lentisci, P. terebinthi, Phym atotrichum om nivorum , P hytophthora p a r ­ +asitica, P ileola ria terebinthi, P leurotus ostreatus, R hizoctonia bataticola, R osellina n eca­ +trix, Septogloeum p ista cia e, S eptoria p ista cia e, S. pistaciaru m , S. pistacin a, Stem phylium +botryosum , T etracoccosporium sp., and U rom yces terebinthi. The P hytophthora causes +footrot via damage to cambium; S eptoria spp. cause defoliation and CuS spray should be +used; P hom opsis and Fusarium attack the female flowers; a virus causing rosettes is serious +in Asia; mistletoe attacks the trees; and the following nematodes have been isolated from +pistachio: H eterodera m arioni, M eloidogyne sp., and X iphinem a index.The roots are +very susceptible to root-knot nematodes.Verticillium wilt is the primary threat, according +to Vietmeyer.^^^ Rice et al.^^^ report epicarp lesion symptoms being reproduced on apparently +L eptoglossu s +healthy pistachio fruit clusters exposed to field-collected adult leaf-footed bugs, +clypealis. Two species of leaf-footed bugs, L eptoglossu s clypealis and L. o ccid en ta lis, and +at least four species of stink-bugs in the genera Thyanta, C hlorochroa, and A crosternum +produced similar external and internal damage to pistachio fruits. Other fruit symptoms, not +associated with insects, were panicle and shoot blight, endocarp necrosis, and stylar-end +lesion. Several species of smaller plant bugs in the family Miridae, including L ygus hesperus +and C alocoris norvegicus, caused epicarp lesion symptoms. +244 Handbook of Nuts +PITTOSPORUM RESINIFERUM Hemsl. (PITTOSPORACEAE) — Petroleum Nut (Eng­ +lish), “ Hanga” (Philippine) +U ses — Called petroleum nuts because of the fancied resemblance of the odor of the +fruit’s oil to that of petroleum, the fruits, even green ones, bum brilliantly when ignited. +Hence, they are used like torch nuts or candlenuts for illumination in the bush. Dihydroterpene +(CioHig) is used in perfumes and medicines. Heptane (CyH^^) is a component of gasoline, +and has been suggested as a possible component of paint and varnish. +F olk m ed icin e — The fmit is used as a panacea by Philippine traditionalists — especially, +however, for abdominal pain. The oleoresin is used to treat muscular pains and skin dis­ +eases. The nut decoction is used for colds. Cmshed nuts are mixed with coconut oil as +a relief for myalgia. AltshuP® quotes from a 1947 Sulit herbarium specimen, “ Petroleum +gas extracted from the fruit is medicinal for stomach-ache and cicitrizant.’’ Hurov^"^^ says +the fruit is used to treat rheumatism, muscle pains, and wounds. +C h em istry — The volatile oil of the fmit is reported to contain “ dihydroterpene and +heptane, which is a cardiac glycosideThe Horticultural and Special Crops Laboratory +at Peoria analyzed an accession of fmit, and identified, from its “ squeezings” , constituents +passing through a gas chromatographic column, heptane (about 45% of the elutents) nonane, +alpha-pinene or beta-ocimene, beta-pinene, myrcene, and unidentified materials. The es­ +sential oil (8 to 10% of fmit weight) contains myrcene (40%) and alpha-pinene (38%) in +245 +± equal quantities (oil of P. undulatum contains mostly limonene). The two components +n-heptane (5%) and n-nonane (7%) are minor components. +D escrip tion — Aromatic tree to 30 m tall, but probably smaller in its elfin forest habitat +(perhaps even epiphytic); fruiting when only 6 to 12 m tall. Leaves aromatic, coriaceous, +entire (possibly evergreen), thickest above the middle, pinnately nerved, with a short acumen +at the tip. Flowers fragrant, white, clustered on the stems. Fruits average 25 mm in diameter +(12 to 43). Each fruit has 5 to 72 seeds (average 31), the seeds ranging from 1 to 4 mm, +averaging 3 mm. The seeds are about as close to hexahedral and prismatic as any I have +seen, being quite angular, black to blackish-gold, often still surrounded by a gummy or +resinous endocarp. +G erm p lasm — The FORI Director in the Philippines is actively collecting superior +germplasm in the high mountains of Bontoc and Benguet where they abound, especially in +elfin forests. +D istrib u tion — In the Philippines, petroleum nut is locally known in Benguet as apisang, +abkol, abkel, and langis; in the Mountain Province, dael and dingo, and in Abra, sagaga. +It abounds in Mt. Pulis, Ifugao, and is reported from the head-waters of the Agno and Chico +River Basins. Also in the Bicol Provinces, Palawan, Mindoro, Nueva Ecija, and Laguna +Provinces. It is being cultivated at FORFs Conifer Research Center, Baguio City.*^’^^^ +E cology — Petroleum nut is reported to range from 600 to 2,400 m elevation, usually +in elfin or Benguet Pine Forest. Average of 7 climatic data sites where the Pittosporum +grows was close to 1,000 m, the range from ca. 550 to 2,000 m. Whether or not it can +stand frost, dry heat, and drought is questionable. Frequently, species of elfin forests have +very narrow ecological amplitudes and do not thrive in other vegetation types. Results of +transplants and trials are unavailable to me now. Reportedly, seed were introduced once, +at least to Hawaii. Thanks to Professors Ludivina S. de Padua, S. C. Hales, and Juan V. +Pancho of the Philippines, we now have a fairly good idea of the ecosystematic amplitudes +of the Pittosporum, an energy plant that has captured the imagination of many. Professor +de Padua checked off all the climatic data points (from our climatic data base) at which +Pittosporum resiniferum was growing, prior to its widespread introduction for potential +energy studies elsewhere in the Philippines. Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist through +Subtropical Forest Life Zones, the petroleum nut grows where the annual precipitation ranges +from 15 to more than 50 dm (mean of 36 cases = 27 dm), annual temperature from 18 to +28°C (mean of 17 cases = 26°C). Of 17 cases where both temperature and rainfall data +were available to us, 13 would suggest Tropical Moist Forest Life Zone, three would suggest +Tropical Dry, and one would suggest Subtropical Rain Forest Life Zones. +C ultivation — Seeds and cutting can be used to propagate the tree. Seeds may lose their +vitality rather rapidly. According to Juan V. Pancho (personal communication, 1982), “ from +my experience, the seed lost its viability after one month storage.” +H arvestin g — Currently, seeds are harvested from the wild. +Y ields and econ om ics — A single fruit yields 0.1 to 3.3 m€, averaging about 1.3 m€ +oil. In general, the bigger the fruit, the larger the seed, and the greater the oil content. +It is reported^^ that a single tree from Mount Mariveles, Bataan, yielded 15 kg green fruits, +which yielded 800 cm^ of oil. The residue, ground up and distilled with steam, yielded 73 +cm^ more. Another report gave 68 g per kg fresh nuts, suggesting about 1 kg oil per tree +yielding 15 kg.‘^ Currently, seeds are being sold at $2.00 per gram in 5-gram lots (ca. 40 +seeds per g) by the FORI Seed Officer, Forest Research Institute College, Laguna, Phil­ +ippines. +E n ergy — The plant was discovered as a hydrocarbon source just after 1900. Based on +the previous paragraph, it seems it would take 1,000 trees per ha to get one MT oil per +hectare from the fruits. Perhaps the resin in the leaves, twigs, etc. would equal or exceed +this; figures are not yet available. The oil derived from the fruits is quite sticky and rapidly +246 Handbook of Nuts +turns resinous when laid thin. In an open dish, it bums strongly, although with a sooty +flame.C. A. Arroyo‘S notes that for home use as fuel, “ the husk of African oil palm nuts +could be much better than the petroleum nut that emits sooty smoke and strong smell.” +President Marcos was said to encourage each Philippine farmer to plant five trees in the +hopes that they could obtain 300 € of oil therefrom, per year. I saw nothing about this at +the Philippine exhibit at the World’s Fair in June 1982. However, if yields of 60 € of oil +per tree are possible, the tree should certainly be examined! In the January 1981 issue of +Canopy International, Generalao^®® lists petroleum nut at the top of a long list of potential +oil seeds including Pongamia pinnata, Sterculia foetida, Terminalia catappa, Sindora supa, +Calophyllum inophyllum, Canarium luzonicum, Aleurites moluccana, Aleurites trisperma, +Mallotus philippensis, Barringtonia asiatica, Sindora inermis, Pithecellobium dulce, Ta- +marindus indica, Chisocheton cumingianus, Jatropha curcas, and Euphorbia philippensis +to help the Philippines solve their energy problem (importing 85%). Presidential Decree +1068 declares the imperative acceleration of research on energy alternatives. Editorial notes +in Canopy International suggest that the flammable element in petroleum nut is volatile, +evaporating quickly like acetone. Some chemists believe admixing another element will +stabilize the compound. One Hurov seed cataloghas very optimistic notes about the plant: +“ The Gasoline Tree produces masses of apricot-sized orange fruits which when cut and +touched with a match leap into flame and bum steadily. The fmits contain 46% of gasoline +type components (heptane, dihydroterpene, etc.), which are found in extensive networks of +large resin canals. If planted, the estimated yield would be about 45 tons of fmit or 2500 +gallons of ‘gasoline’ per acre per +B iotic factors — No data available. +247 +PLATONIA ESCULENTA (Arr. Cam.) Rickett & Stafl. (CLUSIACEAE) — Bacury, Bacuri, +Pakuri, Parcouril, Piauhy, Wild Mammee (Guyana) +S yn .: Anstoclesia esculenta (A rr. C a m .) Stuntz; Platonia insignis M art. +Uses — Seeds are the source of Bacury Kernel Oil, a nondrying oil used in the manufacture +of candles and soaps. Fruits are used for pastry and preserves, and are highly esteemed in +the Amazon region for the delicious pulp from the large fruit, used in sweets and ice cream. +Extracts of the fruit are toxic to black carpet beetles, but not to the larvae of Aedes and +Anopheles. A yellow gum resin secreted by the bark is used in veterinary medicine. Wood, +brownish-yellow, turning black upon exposure to air, is durable, resistant to insect attacks; +resilient, rather fine-grained, easy to work, taking on a lustrous finish; used for flooring, +planks, fancy wood-work, and construction of buildings. Presently, wood is used for making +rum barrels, and cases or crates for shipping bananas; it is also excellent for cabinet work +and carpentry. Bark is white, exfoliating, fibrous, used for cordage, and yielding a black +viscous resin used for caulking boats. +F olk m ed icin e — No data available. +C h em istry — This is one of the few outstanding exceptions to the generally evenly +distributed glyceride structure of solid seed fats. In 1945, it was reported to have the unusually +high melting point of 51 to 52°C and contain 24% fully saturated glycerides, although its +component acids were approximately 56% saturated (palmitic and stearic) with 39% oleic +and 4% linoleic acid. Component acids reported are myristic 1.0, palmitic 55.1, stearic 6.4, +arachidic 0.3, hexadecenoic 3.2, oleic 31.7, and linoleic 2.3%, and the component glycer­ +ides: fully saturated 20 (tripalmitin 15), oleodipalmitin 38, oleopalmitostearin 17, palmi- +todiolein 19, stearodiolein 6%. Apart from the fully saturated glyceride content, the rest of +248 Handbook of Nuts +the fat is constituted on the usual lines, and bacury fat thus resembles laurel kernel fat in +that it is only the fully saturated glycerides which are abnormal. It is possible, but of course +not in any way proven, that such departures from the normal are caused by certain acids +(in this instance, palmitic) being produced in the seed at some stage of its development in +much greater proportions than the average content of the acid in the total seed fat at maturity; +if so, the departure from normality would be more apparent than real. Elsewhere, Hilditch +and Williams report among the saturated fatty acids 1.2% C14, 57.2% C,^, 6.0% Cjg, and +0.2% C20 or above. Among the glycerides, 19% were trisaturated, 55% were disaturated, +26% monosaturated.*^^ +D escrip tion — Large trees with yellowish sap; trunk straight, cylindrical, 50 to 55 cm +in diameter (up to 1.3 m), free of branches 20 to 25 m up, with indistinct, low, thick +butresses; cortex dark-gray, with deep vertical cracks 1 to 3 cm apart, or with large scales +5 to 25 mm thick; crown broad, flattened, with thick straight slightly slanting branches; +twigs straight and stout; entire plant glabrous except the inflorscence. Leaves remote at ends +of branches and in single pairs at ends of short lateral branchlets; petioles 1 to 2 cm long, +margined; blade elliptic, obovate or oblong to oblong-lanceolate, apex and base rounded, +acute or slightly acuminate, up to 15 cm long, coriaceous, glossy above, midrib flat or +impressed above, prominent to strongly prominent beneath; primary veins prominent on both +sides, connected by a submarginal vein. Inflorescence 1- to 3-flowered, terminating the leaf­ +bearing branchlets; peduncle absent; pedicels 1 to 3 cm long, their bases surrounded by a +series of deltoid bracts 3 to 4 mm long, leaving transverse scars; flowers minutely pulverulent; +sepals ovate to broad semi-orbicular, 6 to 8 mm long; petals elliptic, 3.5 to 4 cm long, pink +outside, white inside; bud reddish. Fruit globose, 5 to 7.5 cm long, green, turning yellow; +mesocarp edible, often containing only 1 seed, rarely more, of pleasant flavor. Flowers +September to November; fruits March to May.^^* +G erm p lasm — Native to the South American Center of Diversity, bacury tolerates sand +and some waterlogging. Mors and Rizzini^^^ state “ it would be an ideal object of study for +plant breeders, who could increase the pulpy part at the expense of the very large seeds” . +Oilseed specialists might breed in the other direction. +D istrib u tion — Native to Brazil (Para, Maranhao, Ceara, Goyaz, Amazon) and Guyana. +E cology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Wet +Forest Life Zones, perhaps tolerating annual temperatures of 18 to 25°C, annual precipitation +of 5 to 40 dm, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0. On sandy, dry plains and in marshy regions, growing +scattered in tropical environment.^^® +C u ltivation — Trees grow naturally from seeds in the forests, and the tree is not known +to be cultivated. +H arvestin g — Trees are cut from the forest for timber. Fruits and seeds are collected by +natives and sold at trading centers. Most of the products are used locally by the natives. +Y ield s and econ om ics — No yield data available. Seeds and fruits are sold at local +markets in Brazil, French Guyana, and Surinam. Also lumber, dye wood, and fiber are sold +in some markets. +E n ergy — Prunings and falling leaves might provide 5 to 10 MT dry matter per ha per +yr, which could be diverted to energy production, for direct combustion or conversion into +alcohol or methane. With no yield data on the nuts, I cannot speculate as to how much +renewable oil, resin, and fuel wood this produces. +B iotic factors — No serious pests or diseases have been reported for this tree. +249 +PRUNUS DULCIS (MILL.) D.A. WEBB (ROSACEAE) — Almond +Uses — Almonds are cultivated for the nuts, used in candies, baked products, and +confectioneries, and for the oils obtained from the kernels. Oil is used as a flavoring agent +in baked goods, perfumery and medicines. Benzaldehyde may be used for almond flavoring, +being cheaper ($1.54/kg) than almond oil ($5.28 to $6.60/kg).^^^ Much valued in the orient +because it furnishes a very pleasant oil. In Tuscany, almond branches are used as divining +rods to locate hidden treasure. Modem English Jews reportedly still carry branches of +flowering almonds into the synagogue on spring festival days. There is the legendary story +of Charlemagne’s troops’ spears (almond) sprouting in the ground overnight and shading +the tents the next day. As essential oils go, there is only bitter almond oil. Sweet almond +oil is used for cosmetic creams and lotions, although in a crisis, it might conceivably be +used as an energy source. The gum exuded from the tree has been used as a substitute for +tragacanth.®^ +F olk M ed icin e — According to Hartwell,the seed and/or its oil are used in folk +remedies for cancer (especially bladder, breast, mouth, spleen, and uterus), carcinomata, +condylomata, corns, indurations and tumors. Reported to be alterative, astringent, carmi­ +native, cyanogenetic, demulcent, discutient, diuretic, emollient, laxative, lithotriptic, ner­ +vine, sedative, stimulant and tonic, almond is a folk remedy for asthma, cold, corns, cough, +dyspnea, emptions, gingivitis, heartburn, itch, lungs, prurigo, skin, sores, spasms, sto­ +matitis, and ulcers. The kernels are valued in diet, for peptic ulcers. It is no surprise that +the seeds and/or oil (containing amygdalin or benzaldehyde) are widely acclaimed as folk +cancer remedies, for all sorts of cancers and tumors, calluses, condylomata, and corns. +Lebanese extract the oil for skin trouble, including white patches on skin; used throughout +the Middle East for an emollient; also for itch. Raw oil from the bitter variety is used for +acne. Almond and honey was given for cough. Thin almond paste was added to wheat +porridge to pass gravel or stone. It is believed by the Lebanese to restore virility. Iranians +make an ointment from bitter almonds for furuncles. Bitter almonds, when eaten in small +quantity, sometimes produce nettle-rash. When taken in large quantity, they may cause +250 Handbook of Nuts +poisoning. Ayurvedics consider the fruit, the seed and its oil aphrodisiac, using the oil for +biliousness and headache, the seed as a laxative. Unani use the seed for ascites, bronchitis, +colic, cough, delirium, earache, gleet, hepatitis, headache, hydrophobia, inflammation, +renitis, skin ailments, sore throat, and weak eyes.^'^^ +C h em istry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 547 to 605 calories, 4.7 to 4.8 +g H2O, 16.8 to 21.0 g protein, 54.1 to 54.9 g fat, 17.3 to 21.5 g total carbohydrate, 2.6 +to 3.0 g fiber, 2.0 to 3.0 g ash, 230 to 282 mg Ca, 475 to 504 mg P, 4.4 to 5.2 mg Fe, 4 +to 14 mg Na, 432 to 773 mg K, 0 to 5 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.24 to 0.25 mg +thiamine, 0.15 to 0.92 mg riboflavin, 2.5 to 6.0 mg niacin, and traces of ascorbic acid. +According to WOI, the seeds contain 5.8 mg/100 g Na, 856 K, 247 Ca, 257 Mg, 4.23 Fe, +0.14 Cu, 442 P, 145 S and 1.7 Cl. About 82% of the P is in phytic acid. Seeds contain +0.45 ppm folic acid, 150 mg/kg alpha-tocopherol and 5 mg/kg gamma-tocopherol. The chief +protein is a globulin, amandin, which contains 11.9% arginine, 1.6% histidine,, 0.7% lysine, +2.5% phenylalanine, 4.5% leucine, 0.2% valine, 1.4% tryptophane, 0.7% methionine, and +0.8% cystine. The approximate fatty acid composition of the oil is 1% myristic, 5% palmitic, +77% oleic, and 17% linoleic.Sweet almond oil from Kashmir showed 0.2% myristic, 8.9% +palmitic, 4.0% stearic, 62.5% oleic, and 24.4% linoleic. The essential oil is 81 to 93% +benzaldehyde, close kin to laetrile. The hulls (fleshy pericarp) contain: 7.5% moisture, +25.6% total sugars, 7.2% reducing sugars, 4.4% tannin, 2.6 to 4.7% protein, 1.6% starch, +2.4% pectin, 1.1 to 1.2% ether extract, 12.6% crude fiber, and 4.6 to 6.3% ash.^® The gum +which exudes from the trunk hydrolyses into 4 parts L-arabinose, 2 parts D-xylose, 3 parts +D-galactose, and 1 part D-glucuronic acid. The edible portion of the nuts contain 3.2 ppm +Al, 0.02 As, 0.001 Au, 18 B, 2.6 Ba, 20 Br, 2720 Ca, 0.02 Cd, 28 Cl, 0.2 Co, 1.7 Cr, +0.1 Cs, 14 Cu, 0.1 Eu, 1.3 F, 54 Fe, 0.04 Hf, 0.1 Hg, 0.1 I, 6346 K, 0.03 La, 0.01 Lu, +2297 Mg, 14 Mn, 0.3 Mo, 20 Na, 1.6 Ni, 0.4 Pb, 13 Rb, 3420 S, 0.1 Sb, 0.003 Sc, 0.02 +Se, 960 Si, 0.1 Sm, 0.7 Sn, 16 Sr, 0.03 Ta, 0.2 Th, 3.5 Ti, 0.02 V, 0.1 W, 0.1 Yb, 32 +ppm Zn dry weight. The normal concentration of some of these elements in land plants are +50 ppm B, 14 Ba, 15 Br, 2000 Cl, 0.5 Co, 0.2 Cs, 14 Cu, 3.200 Mg, 630 Mn, 3 Ni, 20 +Rb, 3,400 S, 26 Sr, and 0.2 ppm Se dry weight. They were higher in calcium and chromium +than any of the 12 nut species studied by Furr et al.*®^ +D escrip tion — Tree to 10 m tall, the alternate leaves lanceolate to oblong lanceolate, +minutely serrate. Flowers solitary, white to pink, actinomorphic, 20 to 50 mm broad, +appearing with or before the foliage. Fruit an oblong drupe 30 to 60 mm long, pubescent, +the tough flesh splitting at maturity to expose the pitted stone; endocarp thin or thick; seed +flattened, longovoid, the seed coat brown. +G erm p lasm — Reported from the Central Asian and Near Eastern Centers of Diversity, +almond or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate drought, frost, high pH, heat, mycobacteria, +nematodes, slope, and wilt.^^ ‘Cavaliera’ is very early, ‘Nonpareil’ early, ‘Ferragnes’ me­ +dium, ‘Marcona’ late, and ‘Texas’ very late. (2n = 16.) +D istrib u tion — Widely distributed in cultivation now, the sweet almond is said to have +wild types in Greece, North Africa, and West Asia. Almond was cultivated in China in the +10th Century BC, in Greece in the 5th Century BC. +E cology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Thom to +Moist Forest Life Zones, almond is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 2.0 to 14.7 +dm (mean of 11 cases = 7.5) annual temperature of 10.5 to 19.5°C (mean of 11 cases = +14.8) and pH of 5.3 to 8.3 (mean of 7 cases = 7.3). Almond does well in the hot, dry +interior valleys of California, where the nuts mature satisfactorily. The leaves and nuts are +less subject to attack by disease-causing fungi in the hot, dry climate than under cooler and +more humid conditions. It has a low winter chilling requirement. Because of this low chilling +requirement (or short rest period), and the relatively low amount of heat required to bring +the trees into bloom, the almond is generally the earliest deciduous fruit or nut tree to flower, +251 +hence extremely subject to frost injury where moderately late spring frosts prevail. Almonds +need ample rainfall or irrigation water for maximum production of well-filled almond nuts. +Trees have been planted in certain areas where supplies of water are inadequate for other +fruit or nut crops; however, yields of nuts were low. In general, conditions favoring peach +production will also favor almonds. The almond tree has been successfully grown on a wide +range of soils. It is a deep-rooted tree and draws heavily on the soil, which should be deep, +fertile, and well drained. Sandy loams are best. Since sandy soils are often deficient in plant +food elements, careful attention must be paid to proper fertilization of the trees. Almond +trees have high N and P requirements. Sandy soils are easy to cultivate, and cover crops +are comparatively easy to grow on them provided they are properly fertilized. +C u ltivation — In India, trees are raised from seedlings, the seeds usually having a chilling +requirement. Seeds are sown in nurseries, the seedlings transplanted after about one year. +For special types, as in the U.S., scions are budded or grafted on to bitter or sweet almond, +apricot, myrobalan, peach, or plum seedlings. Trees are planted 6 to 8 m apart and irrigated, +in spite of their drought tolerance. Application of nitrogenous and/or organic fertilizers is +said to improve yield. Trees should be pruned to a modified leader system. All types are +self-sterile, so cvs or seedlings should be mixed. +H arvestin g — Fruits occur mainly on shoot spurs, which remain productive up to five +years. Bearing trees may be pruned of surplus branches to about 20% of the old-bearing +wood. Tree exhibiting decline may be severely cut back at the top. In India, the trees bear +from July to September. Fruits are harvested when the flesh splits open exposing the stone. +The flesh is then removed from the stones manually or by machine. +Y ield s and econ om ics — In 1971, commercial almond production in the U. S. was centered +in California, which produced more than 99% of the domestic marketed nuts. California’s +production of in-shell nuts during the 1960s nearly tripled. It reached about 140,000 in-shell +tons in 1970. Only sweet almonds are grown commercially. Imports, largely from Spain +and Italy, vary widely from year to year, ranging from about 280 to 1,700 tons on the in­ +shell basis for the past 7 years. The U.S. imported 67,252 kg of bitter almond oil worth +$271,600 in 1981, 354 kg from Canada worth $1,300, 48,470 kg from France worth +$221,300, 998 kg from Haiti worth $2,600, 17,400 kg from Spain worth $46,000, and 30 +kg from Switzerland worth $400. On August 2, 1982,^^^ posted prices were ca. $7.70/kg +of natural bitter almond, and $2.64/kg of sweet almond. Dealers in bitter almond oil include: +Berge Chemical Products, Inc. Florasynth, Inc. +5 Lawrence Street 410 E. 62nd Street +Bloomfield, NJ 07003 New York, NY 10021 +Hagelin & Co., Inc. International Sourcing, Inc. +241 Cedar Knolls Road 555 Route 17 S. +Cedar Knolls, NJ 07927 Ridgewood, NJ 07450 +Dealers in sweet almond oil include: +Berje Chemical Products, Inc. Lipo Chemicals, Inc. +5 Lawrence Street 207 Nineteenth Avenue +Bloomfield, NJ 07003 Paterson, NJ 07504 +Mutchler Chemical Co., Inc. PPF Norda Inc. +99 Kinderkamack Road 140 Rt. 10 +Westwood, NJ 07675 East Hanover, NJ 07936 +252 Handbook of Nuts +Energy — According to The W ealth o f I n d i a , average California yields are ca. 400 +kg/ha, but they attain over 1,200 kg/ha. However, for Baluchistan, WOI reports 2,375 kg/ha, +basing this on an optimistic yield of 7.3 kg for each of 325 trees per ha. Yields of 2 to 3 +kg per tree seem more realistic; Duke,®^ however, reports seed yields of 3000 kg/ha. With +an oil yield of 50 to 55%, it is easy to project oil yields of 1500 kg/ha. With recommended +pruning to 20% of the old-bearing wood, several MT firewood should be available from the +pruning. Analyzing 62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins and Ebeling*'^^ reported +a spread of 20.01 to 18.93 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered rice straw to 23.28 +MJ/kg for prune pits. On a percent DM basis, the orchard prunings of almond contained +76.83% volatiles, 1.63% ash, 21.54% fixed carbon, 51.30% C, 5.29% H, 40.90% O, 0.66% +N, 0.01% S, 0.04% Cl, and undetermined residue. The hulls, showing a spread of 17.13 +to 18.22 MJ/kg, contained 71.33% volatiles, 5.78% ash, 22.89% fixed carbon, 45.79% C, +5.36% H, 40.60% O, 0.96% N, 0.01% S, 0.08% Cl, and undetermined residue. The shells, +with a spread of 18.17 to 19.38 MJ/kg, contained 73.45% volatiles, 4.81% ash, 21.74% +fixed carbon, 44.98% C, 5.97% H, 42.27% O, 1.16% N, 0.02% S, and undetermined +residue. +Biotic factors — Prominent diseases in India include “ shot hole” caused by C laster- +osporium carpophilum (Lev.) Aderh., “ white spongy rot” due to F om es lividus Kl, “ brown +patchy leaf rot’ ’ due to P h yllosticta pru nicola (Spiz) Sacc., ‘ ‘brown rot’ ’ due to Sphaerotheca +pannosa (Walk.) Lev. and a mosaic disease due to virus; all plague the almond. The +chrysomelid M im astra cyanura Hope and the almond weevil M ylloceru s laetivirens Marshall +feed on the leaves. The San Jose scale Q uadraspidiotus pern iciosu s Comstock is a minor +problem. The almond moth E phestia cautella Wlk. infests shelled almonds and dried apricot, +currant, date, fig, peach, and plum. +253 +QUERCUS SURER L. (FAGACEAE) Cork Oak +Syn.: Quercus occidentalis Gay +Uses — Bark provides the cork of commerce, used for bungs and stoppers for bottles +and other containers, life preservers, mats, ring buoys, floats, shoe inner-sole liners, artificial +limbs, sealing liners for bottle caps, novelties, switch-boxes, household appliances and +friction rolls, gaskets of various types for automobiles, electric motors, polishing wheels, +cork-board, and for insulation, acoustical, and machinery isolation purposes. It is also used +in the manufacture of linoleum. The hard wax extracted from the cork waste is used for +making shoe pastes.Acorns provide forage for hogs, and the orchards are profitably +grazed as well by sheep and goats.Acorns may be eaten, especially when roasted, in +cases of necessity.Acorns of all oaks can be converted into “ edible nuts” , but in the +bitter species much work is involved, compared to the “ sweet oaks” like Quercus prinos. +Folk medicine — No data available. +Chemistry — Age, growing conditions, and grades of the bark determine the chemical +composition of cork. A good specimen conforms to the following values: 3 to 7% moisture, +20 to 38% fatty acids, 10 to 18% other acids, 2.0 to 6.5% tannins, 1.0 to 6.5% glycerin, +12.6 to 18.0% lignin, 1.8 to 5.0% cellulose, 4.5 to 15.0% ceroids (waxes, stearins, etc.), +0.1 to 4.0% ash, 8 to 21% other substances. Suberin, the characteristic constituent of cork, +is composed mainly of high-molecular polymerides of hydroxy fatty acids, the major com­ +ponent being phellonic acid (22-hydroxy docosanoic). Other fatty acids present are phloionic +(9,10-dihydroxy octadecanediotic), phloionolic (9,10,18-trihydroxy octadecanoic) and its +stereoisomer (m.p. 133°), cis- and trans-9-octadecenoic, 18-hydroxy-9-octadecenoic, and +several unidentified acids. Crude cork wax contains cerin (chief constituent), friedelin, +steroids, acids, etc.^® Suberin is a mixture containing several acids, including phloionic acid +(C18H34O6), acid XX (C18H32O4), phloionolic acid (C18H36O5), acid XVIII (C18H34O3), acid +V (C18H34O4), phellonic acid (C22H44O3), and phellogenic acid (C22H42O4). The cork wax +is a mixture of esters and triterpenes (cerin C30H50O2; friedelin C30H50O; betulinic acid, +betulin, and suberindiol C28H46O2), also tannin, phlobaphen, cellulose, ligin, cyclitol, and +vanillin. Thus, synthetic vanilla could be a by-product of the cork industry. The bark +contains much silica. +254 Handbook of Nuts +Toxicity — Exposure to the bark is reported to produce a respiratory disorder, suberosis, +which starts with rhinitis, cough, and dyspnea, and then proceeds to chronic bronchitic +changes or extrinsic allergic alveolitis. +Description — Large, subtropical, evergreen tree, to 20 m tall, the trunk circumference +to 10 m, with thick, corky bark; twigs tomentose. Leaves 3 to 7 cm long, ovate-oblong, +sinuate-dentate, dark-green above, gray-tomentose beneath; midrib sinuous; petiole 8 to 15 +mm long. Male flowers in aments, female flowers in small clusters on short twigs. Fruit +ripening in the first year in spring-flowering trees, but some trees flower in autumn and +ripen their fruits late in the following summer; involucral scales long and patent, the lower +usually shorter and more appressed.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the Mediterranean Center of Diversity, cork oak, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, poor soil, and sand.®^ Highly variable, +with only one type differing sufficiently to be regarded as a subspecies, i.e., Q. occidentalism +differing principally in its slower maturing acorns, known from the Iberian Peninsula, +southeastern France, and Corsica. Individual clones have been selected and cultivated in +many areas, including the (2n = 24.) Among the American oak species, acorns +of chestnut oak and white oak are most likely to serve as nuts. +Distribution — Native and forming extensive forests (in the past) from northwestern +Yugoslavia, west to Spain and Portugal, the islands of the western Mediterranean and north +Africa (Morocco and Algeria). Introduced and cultivated for cork in eastern India, Japan +(southern islands), and in southern California. Trees also planted from New Jersey to Florida +and westward to California for experimental purposes in the late 1940s.^^® +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist through Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones, +cork oak is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1 to 13.5 dm (mean of 10 cases += 8.2), annual temperature of 9.7 to 26.5°C (mean of 10 cases = 16.3), and pH of 4.9 +to 8.2 (mean of 9 cases = 6.9).®^ Hardy to Zone 7.^"^^ Subtropical climate is essential for +good bark formation. Trees have withstood temperatures of - 18°C in South Carolina. In +general, a mean annual temperature of not less than 5°C with range of not lower than 2°C +and maximum mean annual temperature of 21°C is best for growth. About 57% of cork is +grown in the 18 to 21 °C region. Trees are quite drought-resistant and do not require irrigation +after the first few years. Will grow well with 2.5 to 10 dm annual rainfall; optimum is 5 to +10 dm/year. Grows best in neutral or slightly acid, sandy, well-drained, soils. Trees grow +from sea-level up to 1,300 m. Though granitic, clay, or slate soils are suggested,Srnith^’® +says, “ the poorer the soil, the better the cork” . +Cultivation — Best method of planting is by direct seeding. Ripe acorns are planted in +groups of 4 or 5 (about 625 groups per ha), each group in a shallow furrow covered to a +depth of 1.3 cm. The stand is later thinned so that one plant remains at each site. Seeds +may be germinated in seed-beds and transplanted later, but the seedlings should not be +disturbed after the taproot has become established. Viability of seeds is short, but can be +lengthened by wet cold storage at 0.5 to 1.5°C.^^® Requiring no stratification, the seeds +show 73 to 100% germination after 20 to 30 days at 2TC day and night temperatures.^ +Trees may also be grafted on both evergreen or deciduous native oaks. Techniques for clonal +cuttings have been worked out.^‘® Older saplings should be thinned to avoid shading. At +age 50, trees should be thinned to ca. 500 per ha; at 75 years to about half that number; at +120 years, there should be about 1(X) per ha. With such reduction, overcrowding is avoided +and cork production per ha is relatively stabilized. +Harvesting — Cork of commercial value is not produced by trees less than 30 years old. +Since transplanting of saplings and small trees should not be attempted, and direct seeding +is practiced, it is impossible to bring trees into production in less than 30 years. First stripping +of bark may occur when the tree is about 20 years old. This virgin bark or mascalage is +rough and coarse and of little commercial value. Its removal stimulates the growth of cork +255 +so that during the succeeding 2 or 3 years, much of the cork is produced. In Algeria, this +virgin or male bark is put back in place around the tree and held there by wires for 2 years +or so, thus protecting the new bark that is forming. This growth gradually decreases in rate +until after about 9 years scarcely any further thickening of the bark is perceptible, and at +the end of that period, the second stripping takes place. The second and all subsequent +strippings produce bark of commercial value. At around 120 years, decline sets in. Replanting +should follow. Harvest is rotated, with only a certain number of trees stripped each year. +Each tree is stripped, usually at 9-year intervals, but intervals may vary from 6 to 12 years, +depending on the conditions of growth. If pruning is necessary, trees should not be stripped +until 3 years after pruning. In North Africa, bark is stripped in winter; in other areas, in +spring, when the sap is rising to make bark removal easier. Cork stripping requires consid­ +erable skill. Bark must be removed without injuring the inner-most layer, which must remain +to continue growth.Acorns may be borne at age 12, with good crops every 2 to 4 years. +Yields and economics — Mature trees yield good quantities of cork for 150 to 200 years +in the Mediterranean region. Trees yield about 1.3 kg of cork per stripping, in California. +In the Mediterranean, each tree yields from 20 to 240(to 300) kg at each stripping, depending +on age and size of tree.^^^ Trees are stripped at intervals of 9 to 12 years. About 12 € of +acorn will yield a kg of pork.^’® In Portugal, a cork oak forest is said to produce 34 kg/ha +pork compared to +68 for a Q uercus ilex forest. “ Lard from acom-fed hogs is said not to +harden; hence they are sometimes finished on com for hardening the fat.’’^^® Portugal is the +largest producer of cork, supplying 46.2% of the world’s tonnage from 33.8% of the total +hectarage. There are about 69,000 ha of Portuguese cork oak forests, mainly in the south- +central portion of the country.Smith^‘® reports 400,000 ha in Portugal producing annually +240 kg/ha. Between 1931 and 1948, cork was varying widely in price, from $30 to $600/ton. +Bigger and better trees can yield a ton in one stripping, following another ton 12 years +earlier. English owners of cork estates in Portugal estimate that acorns alone produce 1/2 +to 2/3 of Portuguese pork. The USDA once said “ one gallon of acorns is equal to ten good +ears of com.” Pigs may graze the grass and acorns while sheep and goats may graze the +bushes and shrubs.^*® +Energy — Felled trees and bigger pmnings make excellent charcoal. With low energy +input on tough terrain, this seems to be an energy-efficient land-holding scenario yielding +cork, firewood, pork, and land stability. +Biotic factors — The following fungi have been reported on the cork oak: A rm illariella +m ellea, A scoch yta irpina, A spergillus terreus, A . w entii, A uricularia m esenterica, C halara +quercina, C litocybe olearia, C occom yces dentatus, C oriolus pergam enus, C. versicolor, +C yphella Candida, C ytospora m icrospora, D aedalea biennis, D iatrypella quercina, E ndothis +gyrosa, G anoderm a applanatum , H irneola auricula ju d a e, H ypoxy Ion m editerraneum , Irpex +deform is, Ithyphallus im perialis, /. im pudicis, L enzites quercina, L eptoporus adustus, L. +dichrous, L eucoporus brum alis, M erulium trem ellosus, M ucor ram annianus, M ycoleptodon +ochraceum , P anus conchatus, P eniphora corticalis, P hellinus igniarius, P . torulosus, Pho- +liota cylin dricea, P. spectabilis, Phom a quercella, P hysalospora elegans, P hytophthora +cinnam om i, P leurotu s lignatilis, P. ostreatus, P olyporu s giganteus, P o ria vaporaria. P ro ­ +p o lis fa g in ea , R adulum quercinum , Schizophyllum com m une, Sebacina crozalsii, S eptoria +ocellata, S. qu ercicola, Sphaerotheca lanestris, Stereum fuscum , S. gausapatum , S. spad- +iceum, Tom entella fu sca , T. rubiginosa, Tom entellina bom bycina, T ram etes cam pestris, T. +cinnabarina, T. serialis var. resupinata, Ungulina fom en taria, U. ochroleuca, U redo qu er­ +cus, V olvaria bom bycina, Vuillem inia com edens, X anthochrous cuticularis, X . ribis. The +following nematodes have been isolated from this oak: C aconem a radicicola and H eterodera +256 Handbook of Nuts +RICINODENDRON HEUDELOTII Pierre (EUPHORBIACEAE) Manketti Nut, Sanga +Nut, Essang Nut, Ojuk Nut +Syn.: Ricinodendron africanum Muell. Arg. +Uses — Source of essang oil, seeds contain 35 to 55% oil, which has been recommended +in the drying oil industries. The nuts are consumed as food after boiling. Dried kernels are +ground and cooked with food, e,g., in the Cameroons. The kernels only account for ca. +30% of the fruit, the hard shell is difficult to remove. Wild animals, including elephants, +are fond of the fallen fruits, leading hunters to lie in wait beneath the trees. Ashes of the +wood are used for salt and in the preparation of soap and indigo. Williams^"^ describes the +use of this species as living telegraph poles. Stakes 6 to 10 m long are cut and placed in +holes. During the rainy season, the stake quickly strikes root. Wires are placed on the poles +6 or more meters above the ground as soon as they are firm. Branches tend to sprout only +at the summit, rarely interfering with the wires. The wood, quite light, has been suggested +as a substitute for balsa. Easily carved, it is used for utensils, masks, musical instruments, +boxes, coffins, etc. The hard seeds are used, like marbles, in games, rattles, etc. The very +light sawdust is suitable for life jackets and pith helmets. +Folk medicine — Nigerians use the root-bark, with pepper and salt, for constipation. On +257 +the Ivory Coast, the decoction is drunk for dysentery. Pounded and warmed bark is applied +locally for elephantiasis. The bark infusion is used in Liberia to relieve labor pains and +prevent miscarriage, in the belief that it prevents sterility. The pulped bark prevents abortion. +The bark decoction is used for gonorrhea; the leaf decoction as a beverage or bath in calming +fever."^^’^"^^ +Chemistry — The seed fatty acids of R. africanum include ca. 50% eleostearic acid with +ca. 25% linoleic-, 10% oleic-, and 10% saturated acids.The seed, seed shell, and latex, +containing a resin, are used for diarrhea and gonorrhea.^^^ +Description — Fast-growing, deciduous tree to 33 m or more high and up to 2.5 m girth; +buttresses very short, branches whorled. Leaves alternate, hairy when young, with stellate +hairs, digitately lobed, the 3 to 5 leaflets up to 25 x 15 cm, sessile, obovate-elliptic, +acuminate, narrowed to base, with 10 to 16 pairs of lateral nerves, petioles up to 20 cm +long, stipules persistent and leaf-like; flowers paniculate (December to April in Africa), the +inflorescence yellow-tomentose, white, falling readily. Fruits 3-celled, ca. 2.5 cm in di­ +ameter. Seeds ovoid, rich in oil. +Germplasm — From the Africa Center of Diversity, the essang nut seems to tolerate +savanna, second growth, slopes, and weeds. +Distribution — Widespread in tropical Africa. Fast-growing native of the secondary +forests of the Belgian Congo and possibly also of Nigeria.Irvinedescribes it as common +in fringing, deciduous, and secondary forests, from Guinea to Angola and the Belgian Congo +to Sudan, Uganda, and East Africa. +Ecology — With no ecological data available to me, I speculate that this species ranges +from Subtropical Thom Woodland to Moist through Tropical Thom Woodland to Moist +Forest Life Zones, tolerating annual precipitation of 3 to 25 dm, annual temperature of 23 +to 29°C, and pH of 6 to 8.^^ According to Williams,it requires a wet, humid climate. +Cultivation — Coppicing and rooting readily, this tree is often planted as cuttings for +vine stakes, living fences, and telephone poles. +Harvesting — Said to bear fmit in its 7th to 10th year.^^ +Yields and economics — Irvine describes the nut yields as prolific. +Energy — The wood does not make good firewood, but “ it is much used for fuel” . +Seeds yield 45 to 47% oil which could be used for energy, but because of the high husk/kemel +ratio, the fmits yield only ca. 14% oil. +Biotic factors — According to a forester quoted by Menninger,^^ elephants eat the fmits +greedily, and “ seed will not germinate until it has spent a week in the elephant” , but even +the elephant’s digestive system barely affects the fmit and the enclosed kernel. “ The natives +of Rhodesia, therefore, follow the elephant, recover the hard-shelled nuts where they have +been dropped, clean and dry them, then crack the extremely hard shell, and find the contents +perfectly delicious. This story is a bit grizzly, but it is part of the nut story. The fungus +Fomes lignosus is reported to attack this species. +258 Handbook of Nuts +RICINODENDRONRAUTANENII Schinz (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Mogongo Nut, Manketti +Uses — A much-prized species with edible fruits that are a staple food of Africans and +Bushmen, who eat them raw (fresh or fried), cooked, or fermented into a beer. The thin, +fleshy portion, under the tough skin, may be eaten raw or cooked into a sweet porridge. +The kernel has a sweet, milky, nutty flavor; eaten raw, pounded and fried, or mixed with +lean meat. The seeds can be roasted whole, cracked, and the kernels pounded into a coarse +meal, which is eaten dry, with meat, with other roots, or mixed with baobab pulp. It is the +main food (constituting half of the vegetable diet) of the Bushmen in the Dobe area. One +to three hundred nuts are consumed every day for all but a few months of the year. Also a +staple food of elephants. The timber is yellowish, light, and soft, and is used for carving +bowls, cups, ashtrays, and ornamental figures of animals and birds. Also used for floats, +dart and drawing boards, packing-cases, boxes, toys, insulating material, and coffins. Trees +are often hollow and collect life-saving water. It is believed, in South West Africa and +Botswana, that this species controls the weather, so that it is never struck by lightning. +During one study of the !Kung Bushmen, mongongo nuts contributed 56.7 g protein per +day per bushman, compared to 34.5 g from meat, and only 1.9 from other vegetable foods. +To the !Kung, the mongongo nut is “ basically the staff of life“ .*^"^ The light timber is used +for furniture, coffins, and an inferior paper. +Folk medicine — The fruits are astringent. +Chemistry — The average daily per capita consumption of 300 nuts weighs ca. 212.6 g +but contains the caloric equivalent of 1,134 g cooked rice and the protein equivalent of +396.9 g lean beef. Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk^^^ say the fruits contain 7.9% protein and +no true starch. Fruits yield 30 to 40% oil, kernels 57 to 63%. Skins of the kernel yield 37% +oil. The oil cake has only 0.32 mg vitamin B^ and 0.7 mg calcium pantothenase per 100 +g. The percentages of amino acid in the seed protein are calculated at 2.6% histidine, 4.1% +cystine, 7.9% isoleucine, 6.2% leucine, 5.1% lysine, 2.0% methionine, 4.6% phenylalanine, +7.9% threonine, 1.2% tryptophane, and 7.1% valine.The seed fatty acids of the related +R. africanum (“ essang oil” ) include ca. 50% eleostearic acid with ca. 25% linoleic-, 10% +oleic-, and 10% saturated acids. The aromatic fruit contains a gum-resin and 31% saccharose. +Toxicity — The seed coat is nontoxic to rats when constituting 10% of diet, but it is an +unsuitable food because of its toughness and indigestibility. +Description — Spreading, deciduous, dioecious tree to 10(to 24) m tall, the trunk to 1 +m in diameter; the bark greenish or goldish; twigs and branches, stubby with glabrescent +robust young twigs. Leaves alternate, stipulate, digitately compound, with 3 to 7 leaflets; +petioles pubescent, to 15 cm long; leaflets broadly lanceolate to ovate, apically blunt or +rounded, basally rounded or truncately inequilateral, marginally glandular denticulate, rarely +lobulate, 5 to 13 cm long, 2.5 to 9 cm broad; dark-green above, pale below, with stellate +hairs on both surfaces, the midribs and veins rufose; petiolules biglandular. Male flowers +in slender loose panicles, whitish, the female panicles shorter and few-flowered. Fruits plum­ +shaped, to 4 cm long, hairy when young, the stone exceedingly hard, containing one or two +light-colored kernels. +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, mogongo nut, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate sands and savannas. +Distribution — Northern southwest Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, +and often tropical Africa; grows in groves or forests together on wooded hills and dunes, +and always on Kalahari sand. Makes almost pure forest in parts. +Ecology — With no ecological data available to me, I speculate that this species ranges +from Subtropical Thom Woodland to Moist through Tropical Thom Woodland to Moist +Forest Life Zones, tolerating annual precipitation of 3 to 25 dm, annual temperature of 23 +to 29°C, and pH of 6 to 8.®^ Tending to flower in spring before rain. +259 +Cultivation — Not normally cultivated. +Harvesting — According to Harlan,'^'* women and children are primarily involved in +gathering plant materials among the !Kung Bushmen. But adults gather the mongongo nuts. +Over a 3-week study period, the Bushmen averaged 2V2 days a week (average 6 hr work +per day) devoted to subsistence activities. Compared to hunting, gathering is a low-risk, +high-return enterprise. Fruits ripen ca. February in southern Africa. +Yields and economics — Before the war of 1914-1918, Germans granted a concession +to exploit the forests near Tsumeb in Southwest Africa, which were estimated to yield 50,000 +tons of nuts per year.^"*^ +Energy — If there are forests with 50,000 tons^"^^ of edible nuts therein, the kernels +yielding 60% oil, one could theoretically obtain 30,(XX) tons of oil, and 20,0(X) tons defatted +edible nuts therefrom. +Biotic factors — Fruits greatly relished by elephants. +260 Handbook of Nuts +SANTALUM ACUMINATUM A. DC. (SANTALACEAE) — Quandong Nut, Native Peach +Uses — It’s easier for me to remember the popular name Quandong than Eucarya, +Fusanus, or Santalum, the three generic names among which the quandong has been ca­ +tegorized. Both the fruit or (“ peach” ) and nut (or “ quandong” ) are edible. The red flesh +is cooked in chutneys, jams, and pies. The nut is said to be quite tasty, slightly roasted, +and was a favored food of the aborigines. Pierced with a stick as a candle-nut, the seeds +will bum away with a clear light. Nuts are also made into bracelets, necklaces, and other +ornaments. The hard, durable close-grained timber is used for cabinet making and wood +engraving. +Folk medicine — The seed oil is used medicinally. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fmit is reported to contain 345 kJ, 76.7 g H2O, 1.7 g +protein, 0.2 g fat, 19.3 g carbohydrate, 2.1 g ash, 42 mg Ca, 40 mg Mg, 0.2 mg Zn, 0.2 +mg Cu, 51 mg Na, and 659 mg Data in Menninger, no doubt reflecting dry nuts, report +60% oil and 25% protein. The fmits are rich in vitamin C. Fatty acids in the seed contain +oleic, linoleic, and stearic acids, also santalbinic acid.^®^ Some estimates put the “ santalbic” +261 +content at 40 to 43%. Others say the seed fat is mostly oleic acid except for 3 to 4% palmitic +acid.*^® Wood contains 5% essential oil containing nerolidol. +Description — A tall shrub or a tree to 10 m. Leaves opposite, lanceolate, acute, or +sometimes when young with a short hooked point, mostly 5 to 7.5 cm long, tapering into +a petiole 4 to 6 mm long, coriaceous, with the lateral veins often prominent when old. +Flowers rather numerous, in a terminal pyramidal panicle scarcely longer than the leaves. +Perianth spreading to ca. 5 mm diameter, the lobes somewhat concave even when open. +Free margin of the disk very prominent, broadly rounded between the stamens which curve +over the notches. Anthers very short. Style exceedingly short and conical or scarcely any, +with deeply 2- or 3-lobed stigma. Fruit globular, 10 to 20 mm in diameter, with a succulent +epicarp, and bony pitted endocarp, the perianth-lobes persisting on the top until the fruit is +nearly or quite ripe.^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, Quandong, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate arid conditions and drought. +Distribution — Endemic to Australia, especially northern Australia, and the southwest, +extending into the desert areas. +Ecology — No data available. +Cultivation — Rosengarten comments on an experimental plantation in Quom, Australia. +Kikuya grass was planted to serve as root host. +Harvesting — Some plantation trees have fruited in the third year. +Yields and economics — Rosengarten sums it up, “ Despite its captivating tang, the +quandong seems destined to remain a minor Australian nut.“ ^^"^ +Energy — Serving as candle-nuts, quandongs are so abundant in part of Australia that +they might serve as oil-seeds in the future. +Biotic factors — No data available. +262 Handbook of Nuts +SAPlUMSEBIFERUMiL.) Roxb. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Chinese Tallow Tree, Vegetable +Tallow, White Wax Berry +S yn .: Carumbium sebiferum K u rz, Croton sebiferus L ., Excoecaria sebifera M u ell., +Stillingia sebifera M ich x ., Triadica sebifera (L .) Sm all +Uses — Chinese Tallow Tree is cultivated for its seeds as a source of vegetable tallow, +a drying oil and protein food, and as an ornamental. Fruits yield two types of fats: outer +covering of seeds contain a solid fat with low iodine value, known as Chinese Vegetable +Tallow; kernels produce a drying oil with high iodine value, called Stillingia Oil. Tallow +is used for manufacturing candles, a layer of wax being placed over the tallow body to +prevent too-rapid burning; has excellent burning quality, and gives an inodorous, clear, +bright flame; also used for making soap, cloth dressing, and fuel. Pure tallow fat is known +in commerce as Pi-yu. Oil is used in making varnishes and native paints because of its +quick-drying properties, in machine oils and as a crude lamp oil. Pure oil expressed from +the inner part of the seeds is known in commerce as Ting-yu. Oil-cakes made from crushed +seeds with tallow and oil together is known as Mou-yu. Residual cake, after oil is expressed, +is used as manure, particularly for tobacco fields. Wood is white and close-grained, suitable +for carving and used for making blocks in Chinese printing; also used for furniture making +and incense. Chinese prepare a black dye by boiling leaves in alum water. Tree grows +rapidly, develops an attractive crown, and, as leaves turn red in fall, it is cultivated as a +shade or lawn tree about houses. It is used as a soil binder along roads and canals. Chinese +place an insect on the tree to feed; it lays eggs in the seed, making some of the “jumping +beans,” because of movements of larvae inside. +263 +Folk medicine — In Chinese medicine, oil is used as purgative and emetic, not as a +usual vegetable oil for humans. Overdose of native medicine probably would cause violent +sickness and perhaps death. Additionally, Chinese use the plant as an alexeteric, suppurative, +and vulnerary, especially for edema and skin ailments. Decoction of the root bark is used +for dyspepsia, considered tonic. Resin from root bark considered purgative. The latex is an +acrid and powerful vesicant. +Chemistry — The fatty acid composition of the oil is caprylic, 1.50; capric, 1.00; myristic, +0.97; palmitic, 2.80; stearic, 1.00; oleic, 9.40; linoleic, 53.40; and linolenic, 30.00%. A +Hong Kong sample contained 26.8% oil, with: capric, traces; palmitic, 7; stearic, 3; 2,4- +decadienoic, 5; oleic, 7; linoleic, 24; and linolenic, 54%. Stillingia oil is considered superior +to linseed oil in its drying and polymerizing properties, probably due to the presence of 2,4- +decadienoic acid. Seed meal, left after the extraction of oil, possesses a high content of +protein, and is a valuable feed and fertilizer. It can be processed into a refined flour, +containing 75% protein, fit for human consumption. The amino acid composition of the +protein is as follows: arginine, 16.6; aspartic acid, 11.7; cistine, 1.3; glycine, 4.9; glutamic +acid, 17.3; histidine, 2.9; leucine, 7.4; lycine, 2.6; methionine, 1.6; tyrosine, 3.7; and +valine, 7.8%. The Vitamin B content of the flour compares favorably with that of wheat- +flour. The flour, supplemented with lysine and methionine, is reported to be superior to +wheat-flour. Ethanol extraction of powdered root bark yielded 0.1% phloracetophenone 2,4- +dimethylether, and methanol extraction gave xanthoxylin (C10H12O4). The bark also contains +moretenone, moretenol and a new triterpene, 3-epimoretenol (m.p., 223 to 24°). Leaves +contain gallic and ellagic acids, isoquercitrin, and tannin (5.5%).^^**^^’^^^ +Description — Small to large deciduous tree, 10 to 13 m tall (in 30 years), often with +a gnarled trunk, bark gray to whitish-gray with vertical cracks; stem exudes a milky poisonous +juice. Leaves alternate, broad rhombic to ovate, 3.5 to 8.5 cm long, 4 to 9 cm wide, cordate- +acuminate at apex, usually round at base, turning orange to scarlet in autumn, falling early +in the cold season; petioles 1.5 to 7 cm long, with 2 conspicuous glands at apex and on +each side of scale-like bracts. Flowers monoecious, greenish-yellow, in terminal spikes, 5 +to 10 cm long. Fruit a capsule, subglobose, 0.95 to 1.7 cm in diameter, 3-valved, with +three seeds coated with a white wax. Seeds half-ovate, 0.6 to 1.0 cm long, 0.43 to 0.6 cm +wide, 0.5 to 0.77 cm thick, with an acrid penetrating taste. Flowers April to June; fruit +ripens September to October. +Germplasm — Of the many cvs grown, more than 100 are found in Taiwan. Two main +types are ‘Eagle-Claw’ and ‘Grape’, varying according to form of fruit-spikes, fruit-sprigs, +fruit-stalks, and maturing period. Native to the China-Japan Center of Diversity, tallow tree +is reported to tolerate some frost, grazing, slopes, waterlogging, and weeds. (2n = 36,40.)®^*^^^ +Distribution — Native to many provinces of central China, especially north of the Yangtze +Valley, and Japan. Chinese tallow tree is also cultivated there and on Hainan Island, Hong +Kong, Taiwan,and Korea. It has been introduced into Sri Lanka (where naturalized), +Indochina, Bengal, India, Sudan, Martinique, southern U.S. (S. California, S. Arizona, and +Texas to Florida, north to South Carolina), southern France and Algeria. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry Forest +Life Zones, tallow tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.6 to 15.2 dm (to 37) +(mean of 6 cases = 11.3), annual temperature of 14.7 to 24.3°C (mean of 6 cases = 18.1), +and pH of 5.5 to 7.8 (mean of 5 cases = 6.7).®^ Adapted for growing on canal banks, on +steep mountain slopes, granite hills, or sandy beaches, it grows in weakly alkaline soils, +saline or strongly acid soils. Said to thrive in alluvial forests, on low alluvial plains, and +on rich leaf-molds, growing best in well-drained clayey-peat soils. Favorable climatic con­ +ditions are mean air temperatures of 12.5 to 30.1°C, and an annual precipitation from 13 +to 37 dm. It is generally a subtropical to warm temperate plant, hardy and able to withstand +a few degrees of frost; unripened twigs are susceptible to frost injury. It grows at elevations +100 to 800 m."'"’278 +264 Handbook of Nuts +Cultivation — Propagated by seed, cuttings, layering or top-grafting on seedling stock. +Seed usually sown in late autumn or early spring. Seedlings in the first year may grow 0.3 +to 0.9 m in height and should be transplanted. When seedlings are about 1 m tall (in the +spring of the third year), they should be planted out in permanent areas. Tree grows rapidly, +5 to 8.5 m tall with DBH of 13 to 17 cm in 10 years, and 10 to 13 m tall with DBH 30 to +40 cm in 20 to 30 years. When cultivated, trees are grown in plantations or transplanted to +borders of fields or canals, so as not to interfere with the cultivation of the soil. Chinese +also make cuttings by breaking small branches and twigs, care being taken not to tear or +wound the bark. These are layered and rooted. +Harvesting — Fruits and seeds, about the size of a pea, are harvested by hand in November +and December when leaves have fallen. Plants require from 3 to 8 years to bear, but then +continue to bear for years, averaging 70 to 100 years. Trees attain full size in 10 to 12 +years. Seed can be threshed from the tree and collected by hand (once estimated at less than +$.03/kg). Mechanical methods may be readily adapted to the harvest. When fruit is harvested +by hand in midwinter, they are cut off with their twigs with a sharp, crescent-shaped knife +attached to the end of a long pole, which is held in the hand and pushed upward against +the twigs. The capsules are pounded gently in a mortar to loosen the seeds from the shells, +from which they are separated by sifting. +Yields and economics — In plantations trees should be planted one rod apart each way, +giving 400 trees per hectare, and if trimmed to a convenient size for hand harvesting, would +yield 14 MT seed per ha, containing 2.6 MT oil, 2.8 MT tallow, 1.5 MT protein concentrate, +1.1 MT fibrous coat, and 4.5 MT shell. Oil, tallow, and protein meal would bring about +$750 per hectare. This yield could increase with age. Scheld et al.^^^ report yields of 4,000 +to 10,000 kg/ha (in excess of 11,000 kg/ha in VODF Seminar IP^^), and cite estimates of +25 barrels of oil per year as a sustained energy yield. Tallow is separated by placing the +seed in hot water, thereby melting the tallow which floats on the surface, or by melting +tallow with steam and collecting it when it drips off. Solvent extraction of the tallow from +the seed is also used; tallow still adhering to the seed is removed by an alkali treatment. +The fairly thick hard shell prevents extraction of the oil inside, so that the seed is crushed +and Stillingia Oil is obtained by pressing or solvent extraction. According to one report, +seed contains about 20% oil, 24% tallow, 11% extracted meat, 8% fibrous coat, and 37% +shell. Yields of Stillingia Oil as high as 53% of the kernel have been reported in some +varieties. Seed yields vary with the variety and age-gradations of the trees — a tree averaging +at 5 years of age 0.453 kg, at 10 years, 3.379 kg, and at 20 years, 11.989 kg, with yields +gradually decreasing after that. White meal, obtained by the extraction of the kernel, has a +pleasant nut-like flavor, and contains 76% protein. Flour and protein of Chinese tallow nut +contain vitamin B (thiamine). In China and other Oriental countries, as in other regions of +the world, large quantities of tallow and oil are extracted annually from this tree. Tallow +mills are erected where the tree is extensively grown. In addition to its economic value +(from $750/ha for the oil, tallow, and protein), the tree is extensively propagated for or­ +namental purposes alone in Houston, Texas. +Energy — Coppicing well, the tree grows rapidly, the mean annual girth increment 2.6 +to 5.2 cm. The wood, weighing only 513 kg/m^ is used for fuel. With some tolerance to +salt, the tallow trees should be investigated as energy crops for saline situations. Scheld^^^ +reports standing dry wood mass on 4-year plantations at >40 MT/ha, or more than 10 +MT/ha/yr. Princen,^^^ assuming an annual oil yield of 25 barrels per hectare, estimates that +only 24 million hectares of oilseeds (like Sapium) would be required to produce a replacement +for the ca. 8% of our petroleum usage which goes into chemical production. That means +300 million ha could replace all our petroleum usage (ca. 35% of Brazil, 108% of Argentina, +32% of the U.S.). Specific gravity of the wood ranges from 0.37 to 0.48 (mean 0.44) in +samples from 18- to 24-year-old trees. Energy values range from 7,226 to 7,835 Btu/lb +265 +(mean 7,586). Rapidity of coppicing, taproot production, drought and salt tolerance, and +rapid growth rate are attributes leading Scheld and Cowles to regard the tree as a promising +biomass candidate (in the warm coastal region of the U.S.) which can be established over +large acreages by conventional agricultural planting methods and which can provide woody +biomass for direct burning or conversion to charcoal, ethanol, or methanol. +B iotic F actors — Flowers are favored by honey-bees, and fruits are readily eaten by +birds, including domestic fowl. It has been considered a desirable plant for bird-food. The +tree is remarkably free of insect pests. The root-knot nematode, M eloidogyne ja va n ica , has +been reported.Fungi known to attack this tree include: C ercospora stillin giae, C litocybe +tabescens, D endrophthoe fa lca ta , P hyllactina corylea, P hyllosticta stillin giae, and Phy- +m atotrichum om nivorum . ^^^ ^78 +266 Handbook of Nuts +SCHLEICHERA OLEOSA (Lour.) Merr. (SAPINDACEAE) — Lac Tree, Kusum Tree, +Malay Lac-Tree, Honey-Tree, Ceylon Oak +S yn .: Schleichera trijuga W illd ., Pistacia oleosa L our. +U ses — Seeds of the Lac tree are source of Macassar Oil, used in ointments, for candles, +for illumination, as a lubricant for machinery, and in Madura for Batik work. Seeds yield +about 40% of an edible oil or fat, sometimes used for culinary purposes and as a hair oil. +Seeds also are eaten raw or roasted. Unripe fruits are pickled, and fruit may be eaten when +other food supplies are scarce. The ripe fruits, often eaten during the summer, have whitish +pulp and pleasant, acidic taste. Young leaves are eaten with rice. Young shoots are eaten; +they are also lopped for fodder. Combined with wheat-straw and rape-cake, they make good +roughage. Wood is close-grained, very hard, heavy, resistant to moisture, whitish with +heartwood light reddish-brown, taking a fine finish, and used for making mortars, pestles, +axles and hubs, felloes, and stocks of cart wheels, agricultural implements, such as yokes, +plows, and teeth of harrows, shafts, violin bows,, screw rollers in sugar mills, in cotton +and oil presses, tool handles for hammers, axes, and picks. Treated lumber is used for +construction, cabinet work, beams, rafters, purlilns, trusses, posts, sleepers, and for wagon +building. In addition, it is used for road paving, block flooring in mills and warehouses, +pit-props, side-props in shafts and galleries in mines. Bark is employed in tanning; flowers +yield a dye. Trees serve as host for lac insects. +F olk m ed icin e — Reported to be anodyne, cyanogenetic, larvicide, and refrigerant, lac +tree is a folk remedy for acne, backache, bums, fever, inflammation, itch, malaria, neuralgia, +pleurisy, pneumonia, rheumatism, skin problems, and sores.The bark is reported to cure +leprosy, skin diseases, inflammation, and ulcers. The unripe fmit is heating to the body, +heavy to digest, causes biliousness, astringent to the bowels. The ripe fmit is digestible, +astringent to the bowels, heating, appetite stimulant. The seeds are tonic, increase appetite, +cure biliousness. The oil is considered a tonic, stomachic, anthelmintic, purgative, cure for +skin diseases and ulcers. The astringent bark is used as a cure for the itch when mbbed on +267 +with oil. Oil of the seeds is used as a stimulating agent for the scalp, both cleansing it and +promoting the growth of hair. The oil is also used as a purgative and as prophylactic against +cholera; used externally in massage for rheumatism, for the cure of headaches; for skin +disease. Powdered seeds are applied to ulcers of animals and for removing maggots. Bark +is applied to swollen glands and ripening boils.Bark is also used for pain in the back and +loins, inflammation, and ulcers.^® +Chemistry — Seeds are reported to contain 0.3% HCN; the oil is reported to contain +1.6% palmitic-, 10.0% stearic-, 19.7% arachidic-, 0.9% palmitoleic-, 52.2% oleic-, 8.5% +gadoleic-, and 4.0% C22-acid. The oil-cake is reported to contain 5.57% moisture, 22.31% +protein, 48.53% fat, 14.43% soluble carbohydrates, 5.39% fiber, 3.40% soluble mineral +matter, 0.37% sand, 3.08% phosphoric acid (P2O5), and 1.3% potash (K2O). Green leaves +are reported to contain (ZMB) 10.37% crude protein, 1.93% ether extract, 32.34% crude +fiber, 49.21% N-free extract, 2.42% Ca, 0.71% P, 5.09% gallo-tannic acid. The bark is +reported to contain 9.4% tannin.^® Another source reports cotyledons to contain 65 to 70% +oil, with the glycerides composed of lauric-, palmitic-, arachic- (25%), oleic- (ca. 70%), +butyric-, and lignoceric-acid, and traces of benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid, and the bark +to contain 7% tannins.'®^ +Toxicity — Presumably due to the presence of hydrocyanic acid, the seed and seed oil +induce symptoms similar to irritant poisons (giddiness, dilation of pupils, and syncope, +sometimes death). +Description — Trees 15 to 40 m tall, mostly gnarly and crooked, slow-growing; stems +furrowed; branches thin, finely short-hairy to subglabrous, leafing and flowering in early +spring. Leaves alternate, without stipules, 20 to 40 cm long, paripinnate; leaf-rachis sparingly +finely hairy, 5 to 14.5 cm long; leaflets 4 to 8, opposite, obovate-lanceolate, 2.5 to 25 cm +long, 1.6 to 11 cm broad, the lowest pair the smallest, obtuse or shortly acuminate, entire, +coriaceous, glabrescent; young leaves purple; petiolules very sparingly finely hairy to gla­ +brous, 1 to 3 mm thick. Inflorescence 1.5 to 13 cm long, on pedicels 2.5 mm long, finely +short-hairy, the racemes glabrous, apiculate, smooth or spinose; calyx glabrous or nearly +so, about 1.5 mm in diameter, the segments erect, triangular, acute; disk glabrous, ovary +thinly pilose, style persistent, after anthesis indurate. Fruit broadly ellipsoid, glabrous with +thin, hard pericarp, indéhiscent, 1.6 to 2.5 cm long, 1-seeded; seed with a large chalaza; +aril pulpy, subacid, edible. Flowers spring; fruits fall; January to December in Java.^^* +Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity.®^ Lac tree is reported +to tolerate shade, frost, and drought. Seedlings should be protected in early stages as they +are frost-tender. +Distribution — Native and distributed all over Southeast Asia, from the sub-Himalayan +region to Nepal, and central and south India, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Burma, Timor, and Java. +Cultivated in many areas, e.g., near Calcutta and in Java. Introduced in southern California. +Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, lac tree is reported +to tolerate annual precipitation of 9 to 15 (to 30) dm and annual temperature of 24 to 25°C.®^ +Lac trees occur in tropical moist to wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests and in moist +deciduous teak forests in India, as well as in dry deciduous forests. Trees are not particular +about soil structure or content. It grows best below 1,000 m altitude, in nature growing up +to 600 m in teak forests. Optimum temperature should be above 24°C, with precipitation +varying from 9 to 10 dm to 30 dm or more per annum.Lac tree is common on well- +drained boulder deposits, frequently in large numbers along ravines or on the edges of +terraces in the sub-Himalayan tract and the outer hills. Conunon on sides of ravines on +sandstone or on boulder beds in Siwalik range. Scattered near banks of streams in mixed +forests in central India. Prefers slightly acidic soils; thrives best on light well-drained, gravelly +or loamy soils; occurs on sandy and laterite soils. +Cultivation — Trees propagated by seed and root suckers, either naturally in the forest +268 Handbook of Nuts +or under cultivation. Seeds viable only for a short period, but can be stored for 1 year in +gunny sacks or 2 years in sealed tins. Seeds are started in seed-beds, and young trees planted +out when 0.5 to 1 m tall. Once established, no special care is required. No special fertilizers +or soil pH are needed. Wild trees and those grown for boundaries may also be used for lac- +trees. When cultivated, trees are planted about 275/ha. Stump-planting seems to give better +results in moist climates. Stumps, with ca. 4 cm shoot and 23 cm root, are prepared from +seedlings which have attained 7 to 13 mm diameter. Trees should be protected from grazing +and weeded regularly for the first few years. Trees will tolerate only light pruning; apical +pruning is better than surface pruning. +Harvesting — Seeds are harvested in the autumn. Collectors climb trees and cut off fruit­ +bearing branches. Fruits are depulped by keeping them in a heap for 2 to 4 days and rubbing +the decaying pericarp off with the hands. Seeds are then washed, dried, and stored. Kusum +bears a good crop of lac every second or third year.^°’^^® +Yields and economics — Average annual production of stick-lac varies from 1 to 1.5 +kg per tree, to as much as 9 to 18 kg from well-cultivated trees.The quantity of lac +produced per tree varies with the size of the crown and the vigor of the shoots. Average +seed yields of about 28 to 37 kg in one season are reported, which translates to 7 to 13 kg +of easily expressed oil.^° India, Sri Lanka, and Java are the principle producers of the lac, +and the U.S. is the main consumer. Lac from trees from India and Sri Lanka command the +highest price. +Energy — The very heavy wood, specific gravity approximately 0.91 to 1.08, makes +good fuel and excellent charcoal. Sapwood has a calorific value of 4,950 calories (8,910 +Btu); heartwood, 4,928 calories (8,872 Btu). Kernels (60 to 65% of the fresh fruit; 15.3% +of dried fruit) contain 59 to 72% oil, although yields are only 32 to 35% oil by boiling +decorticated seeds, 25 to 27% with ox-driven presses. With 275 trees per hectare, there +could be 1,925 to 3,575 kg oil per ha. The oil is used for candles and for illumination; the +oil-cake is also used as fuel.^° +Biotic factors — Monkeys and birds eat the seeds, thus interfering in their collection for +use for oil. The fungus M eliola capensis is known to attack trees, and D endrophthoe fa lca ta +sometimes parasitizes it.^’^^® Browne^^ lists the following as affecting lac tree: Fungi — +C orticium salm onicolor, R osellinia bunodes. Coleóptera — H olotrichia serrata, M yllocertus +cardoni, X yleboru s fo rn icatu s, X ylosandrus m origerus. Hemiptera — L accifer lacea. Lep- +idoptera — A scotis setenaria, C atach rysops strabo. C usíala raptaría, D asychira grotei, +E ctropis bhurm itra, H elioth is arm ígera, H yposidra successaria, H . talaca, R apala iarbus, +T halassodes fa lsa ria . In addition. The W ealth o f India^^ reports R osellina bunodes (stem +blight), P olyporu s w eberianus (yellow-cork-rot), D aedalea fla vid a (white spongy rot), H ex- +agonia apiaria (white spongy rot), Irpex fla vu s (white fibrous rot). Serinetha augus attacks +the seed. L accifer lacea, the lac insect, is considered the most important insect attacking +the tree.^® +269 +SCLEROCARYA CAFFRA Sond. (ANACARDIACEAE) — Manila Nut, Caffir Marvola Nut +Uses — Tree is important for shade and shelter as well as food to a variety of animals. +Fruits (or kernels, or both) edible, yet said to serve as an insecticide. Kernels of stones have +a delicious nut-like flavor, and are eaten raw, or dried and ground and added to soups or +stews. Fruits, the size of plums, have a pleasant flavor and are a source of food for parrots +and mammals. With a turpentine aroma, the fruit is juicy, tart, and thirst-quenching. Fruit +juice, boiled down, yields jelly or syrup used as sweetening agent. Fruit is also used by +natives to make a fermented beverage which is intoxicating. Elephants and monkeys ap­ +parently become drunk from eating fermenting fruits. Seeds, extracted with difficulty, are +oily, nutrituous and high in vitamin C. Kernels contain about 60% oil, extracted by boiling +and used to preserve and soften skin shirts by Zulu women. Oil is used to treat meat which +is to be kept for up to a year. Oil is also used for cooking and as a base for cosmetic red +ochre. Pedi use the ground up kernels for making a porridge, the embryo as a condiment, +and the leaf as a relish. Bark is used to make a bitter brandy tincture, and is the source of +a red dye. Gum from the bark is mixed with soot and used for ink. Wood, pinkish white, +often with a greenish tinge, changing to a brown-red on exposure, is fairly soft, fairly +durable, saws well, and takes nails, and is used for making fruitboxes, canoes, furniture, +panelling, utensils, troughs, stamping blocks, structures, spoons, bowls, dishes, and drums. +Leaves are browsed by many animals; elephants eat the bark and roots. +270 Handbook of Nuts +Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, marula is a folk remedy for diarrhea, +dysentery, malaria, and proctitis. The bark decoction is used for diarrhea, dysentery, and +malaria, and to clean out wounds. The leaf juice is applied to gonorrhea. Europeans in South +Africa take the bark decoction both for the cure and prevention of malaria (but experiments +have not confirmed antimalarial activity). Zulu use the bark decoction to prevent gangrenous +rectitis. Fruits are believed to serve both as an aphrodisiac and contraceptive for females. +(African cattle, having partaken of too much fruit, have been observed to become both +aggressive and infertile.)®^ Europeans and Africans use the bark as a prophylactic and to +treat malaria, the steam for eye disorders. Because of their abundant fruits, the trees are +widespread fertility charms in Africa. The bark is thought to control the sex of unborn +children; bark of the male tree is administered if a son is desired, and of a female tree if a +daughter is desired. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit (ZMB) is reported to contain 361 calories, 6.0 g protein, +1.2 g fat, 90.4 g total carbohydrate, 6.0 g fiber, 2.4 g ash, 72.3 mg Ca, 229 mg P, 1.2 mg +Fe, 0.36 mg thiamine, 0.60 mg riboflavin, 2.41 mg niacin, and 819 mg ascorbic acid. The +seed (ZMB) is reported to contain, per 100 g, 629 calories, 25.6 g protein, 59.8 g fat, 9.6 +g total carbohydrate, 2.8 g fiber, 5.0 g ash, 149 mg Ca, 1299 mg P, 0.4 mg Fe, 0.04 mg +thiamine, 0.12 mg riboflavin, and 0.73 mg niacin.®^ Per 100 g, the fruit (APB) is reported +to contain 30 calories, 91.7 g H2O, 0.5 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 7.5 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 +g fiber, 0.2 g ash, 6 mg Ca, 19 mg P, 0.1 mg Fe, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.05 mg riboflavin, +0.2 mg niacin, and 68 mg ascorbic acid. The seed (APB) is reported to contain 604 calories, +3.9 g H2O, 24.6 g protein, 57.5 g fat, 9.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.7 g fiber, 4.8 g ash, 143 +mg Ca, 1248 mg P, 0.4 mg Fe, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.12 mg riboflavin, and 0.7 mg niacin. +Bark contains 3.5 to 10% tannin, leaves 20% tannin, a trace of alkaloids, and 10% gum. +Fruits contain citric and malic acid, sugar, and 54 mg vitamin C per 100 g. Seed oil (53 to +60%) contains ca. 55 to 70% oleic acid. The pattern of the amino acids (particularly rich +in arginine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid) in the mean differ only slightly from that in +human milk and eggs.®^ The juice contains 2 mg vitamin C per gram {South Africa Digest, +March 5, 1982). +Toxicity — One source lists it as a narcotic hallucinogen(?). In 1972, a flurry of newspaper +articles heralded the propensity of pachyderms to get pickled on the fruit. Elephants, baboons, +monkeys, warthogs, and humans may overindulge in Kruger Park (South Africa).®^ +Description — Small to large much-branched dioecious, deciduous tree, up to 20 m tall, +with rounded crown with a spread of 10 m; trunk 30 to 90 cm in diameter; bark pale, nearly +smooth, peeling in disk-shaped flakes,which leave circular depressions. Leaves alternate, +crowded toward apex of stem, up to 30 cm long, compound with 3 to 8 pairs of opposite +leaflets; leaflets long-petiolulate, ovate or elliptic, blue-green; serrate on margin in juvenile +plants but smooth in older plants, glabrous, 3.7 to 5 cm long 2.5 to 3.3 cm wide, base +acute, cuspidate. Rowers unisexual, male and female on different trees; male flowers in +terminal reddish spikes or racemes, with 12 to 15 stamens, inserted around a fleshy, de­ +pressed, entire disk; sepals 4, dark-crimson; petals 4, pinkish; female flowers long-peduncled, +borne singly or 2 or 3 together at ends of young shoots (rarely flowers are fully bisexual); +usually only female trees bear fruits, but frequently terminal flowers of male inflorescences +may develop fruits; ovary subglobose, 2- to 3-locular. Fruit a fleshy, obovoid, 2- to 3-celled, +yellow drupe, each cell containing a seed, and each cell with an “ eye” to permit the embryo +to grow out of the shell. Seed or stone about 2.5 cm long, 1.5 cm wide, weighing 3 to 4 +g. Rowers August; fruits December to March in South Africa.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the Africa Center of Diversity, marula, or cvs thereof, is +reported to tolerate drought, heat, insects, and sand.®^ +Distribution — Native to South Africa, particularly to Natal and Transvaal, but wide­ +spread in hotter drier regions, Bechuanaland and tropical Africa, north to Sudan and Ethiopia, +established at Miami, Rorida.^^® +271 +E cology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, +marula is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.7 to 43.0 dm (mean of 3 cases = +21.6 dm), annual temperature of 20.6 to 27.4°C (mean of 3 cases = 24. TC), and pH of +6.1.*^ One of the more common trees in the savannas of the Transvaal. It does not tolerate +frost. Thrives especially in hot dry regions, and is rarely found in higher rainfall areas. +Occurs mainly in woodlands from the coast up to about 700 m altitude, on sandy soils or +occasionally on sandy loams. Reported as growing in savanna grasslands where annual +elevation and rainfall are as follows: Mozambique — 200 to 900 m, 630 to 1000 mm; South +Africa-Mozambique — 300 to 1000 m, 250 to 500 mm; South Zimbabwe — 450 to 1000 +m, 380 to 640 mm; Angola — 80 to 1000 m; 600 to 710 mm; South Africa — 600 to 1500 +m, 380 to 640 mm. In Malagasy, it occurs in areas with 1,000 to 1,500 mm precipitation.^^® +C u ltivation — Common in the wild, marulas have grown very slowly under experimental +conditions, but grow quickly in natural conditions. Seeds germinate readily; the hard stones +should be sown intact. Trees may be propagated by truncheons, 10 to 12.5 cm thick, which +root freely if laid in during early spring. Trees grow fairly rapidly and are drought-resistant +when once established.^^® A project to breed marula was scheduled to begin in 1982 by the +Department of Horticulture at the University of Pretoria (South A frica D igest, March 12, +1982). +H arvestin g — Trees are said to bear fruit more copiously than related species. Fruits are +collected from the ground or by climbing the trees. Natives regard these as the greatest +delicacy and store them carefully. A gift of marula kernels is valued as a mark of highest +friendship among natives. +Y ield s an d eco n o m ics — Trees are very plentiful in the forests where they grow spon­ +taneously, and fruits are collected as needed. One tree yields up to 2 tons of fruit (South +A frica D ig est, March 5, 1982); 30 g of fruit produces 1 € of marula beer (South A frica +D igest, March 12, 1982). From a single tree, 91,000 fruits have been reported.Kernels +consist of nearly 88% hard shell, 12% kernel, the kernel yielding ca. 50% oil. Within the +fruit, the shell contains the small oily kemeUhat bums with a steady flame.^^® Because of +its local economic importance, trees are usually preserved by Bantu and others, even on +cultivated land. In Transvaal also, the trees are protected. +E n ergy — With two tons of fmit possible per tree, one might possibly obtain more than +6,000 € of beer, distilling down to possibly 300 € ethanol per tree, or 3,000 liters assuming +100 trees per hectare. The hard nut endocarp could be converted to charcoal, the kernel +yielding 50% oil. Sap of the tree could also be converted to ethanol. Prunings and by­ +products could be used in pyrolysis. +B iotic factors — Fungi known to attack marula are C ercospora caffra and G loeosporium +sclerocaryae. Trees are host of a small beetle (P olydada) of which the highly poisonous +grubs are used by Bushmen as an ingredient for arrow poisons. Mopane Caterpillars also +grow on the tree, and are eaten after roasting by Bantu and Bushmen.^^® Water, which mns +off the tmnk and crown into holes — usually where a branch has broken off — is used by +mosquitoes for breeding. Larvae of G onim brasia helina sometimes breed on marula. But­ +terflies and the green lunar moth breed on the foliage. Wood is very liable to blue discoloration +through fungi and beetle attacks. +272 Handbook of Nuts +SIMMONDSIA CHINENSIS (Link) C. Schneid. (BUXACEAE) — Jojoba +Uses — Simmondsia is unique among plants in that its seeds contain an oil which is a +liquid wax. Oil of Simmondsia is obtained by expression or solvent extraction. It is light- +yellow, unsaturated, of unusual stability, remarkably pure, and need not be refined for use +as a transformer oil or as a lubricant for high-speed machinery or machines operating at +high temperatures. The oil does not become rancid and is not damaged by repeated heating +to temperatures over 295°C or by heating to 370°C for 4 days; the color is dispelled by +heating for a short time at 285°C, does not change in viscosity appreciably at high temper­ +atures, and requires little refining to obtain maximum purity. Since Simmondsia oil resembles +sperm whale oil both in composition and properties, it should serve as a replacement for +the applications of that oil. The reports that a new oil from the fish known as orange +roughy is “ attempting to make inroads on the jojoba and sperm whale markets” . Jojoba oil +273 +can be easily hydrogenated into a hard white wax, with a melting point of about 73 to 74°C, +and is second in hardness only to camauba wax. The oil is a potential source of both saturated +and unsaturated long-chain fatty acids and alcohols. It is also suitable for sulfurization to +produce lubricating oil and a rubber-like material (factice) suitable for use in printing ink +and linoleum. The residual meal from expression or extraction contains 30 to 35% protein +and is acceptable as a livestock food. Seeds were said to be palatable and were eaten raw +or parched by Indians. Recent studies suggest they are toxic. They may also be boiled to +make a well-flavored drink similar to coffee, hence the name coffeeberry. It is an important +browse plant in California and Arizona, the foliage and young twigs being relished by cattle, +goafs, and deer, hence such names as goatnut.^^ +Folk medicine — Indians of Baja California highly prized the fruit for food and the oil +as a medicine for cancer and kidney disorders. Indians in Mexico use the oil as a hair +restorer. According to H a rtw e ll,th e oil was used in folk remedies for cancer. Reported +to be emetic, jojoba is a folk remedy for cancer, colds, dysuria, eyes, head, obesity, +parturition, poison ivy, sores, sore throat, warts, and wounds. Seri Indians applied jojoba +to head sores and aching eyes. They drank jojoba-ade for colds and to facilitate parturition.®^’*^^ +Chemistry — I was amazed to see, in searching through my massive files on jojoba, +that I had no conventional proximate analysis. It was not even included in two of my most +treasured resources, Hager’s Handbook and The Wealth of India. Pe r haps this is due +to the relative novelty of interest and the unique situation that the seed contains liquid wax +rather than oil, sort of unusual for the conventional analyses.Verbiscar and Banigan^^^ +approximated a proximate analysis, some of which follows: per 100 g, the seed is reported +to contain 4.3 to 4.6 g H2O, 14.9 to 15.1 g protein, 50.2 to 53.8 g fat, 24.6 to 29.1 g total +carbohydrate, 3.5 to 4.2 g fiber, and 1.4 to 1.6 g ash. The amino acid composition of +deoiled jojoba seed meal is 1.05 to 1.11% lysine, 0.49% histidine, 1.6 to 1.8% arginine, +2.2 to 3.1% aspartic acid, 1.1 to 1.2% threonine, 1.0 to 1.1% serine, 2.4 to 2.8% glutamic +acid, 1.0 to 1.1% proline, 1.4 to 1.5% glycine, 0.8 to 1.0% alanine, 1.1 to 1.2% valine, +0.2% methionine, 0.8 to 0.9% isoleucine, 1.5 to 1.6% leucine, 1.0% tyrosine, 0.9 to 1.1% +phenyalanine, 0.5 to 0.8% cystine and cysteine, and 0.5 to 0.6% tryptophane. Detailed +analyses of the wax esters, free alcohols, and free acids, are reported in NAS.^^^ Per 100 +g jojoba meal, there is 1.4 g lysine, 0.6 g histidine, 1.9 g arginine, 2.6 aspartic acid, 1.3 +threonine, 1.3 serine, 3.2 glutamic acid, 1.5 proline, 2.4 glycine, 1.1 alanine, 0.6 cystine, +1.5 valine, 0.1 methionine, 0.9 isoleucine, 1.8 leucine, 1.1 tyrosine, and 1.2 g phenylalanine. +The two major flavonoid constituents of the leaves are isorhamnetin 3-rutinoside (narcissin) +and isorhamnetin 3,7-dirhamnoside.^^ +Toxicity — Simmondsin, a demonstrated appetite-depressant toxicant is contained in +seeds, 2.25 to 2.34%; seed hulls, 0.19%; core wood, 0.45; leaves, 0.19 to 0.23%; twigs, +0.63 to 0.75%; and inflorescence, 0.22%. Three related cyanomethylenecyclohexyl glu- +cosides have also been isolated from the seed meal. The acute oral LD50 for crude jojoba +oil to male albino rats is higher than 21.5 m€/kg body weight. Strains of Lactobacillus +acidophilus can ameliorate this toxicity. +Description — Leafy, xerophytic, long-lived (100 to 200 years), evergreen dioecious +shrub, ca.0.5 to 1 m tall in the wild, but occasionally to 6 m tall; leaves thick, leathery, +bluish-green, oblong, opposite, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, entire; flowers apetalous, the female +ones usually solitary in the axils, the male ones clustered with 10 to 12 stamens per flower; +female flowers with 5 greenish sepals, soft and hairy; the flowers on different plants, male +and female plants about equal in nature; fruits ovoid, usually dehiscent, with 1 to 3 peanut­ +sized, brown seeds each, the endosperm scanty or absent; seeds about 750 to 5,150/kg, +about 50% oil.^^® +Germplasm — Reported from the Middle American Center of Diversity, jojoba, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, drought, heat, high pH, and slope.Yermanos^"^® +274 Handbook of Nuts +describes a monoecious strain which may lead to self-pollinating cvs. (n = 52, 56, ca.lOO.) +Distribution — Native to areas of northern Mexico, Lower California, on the Islands off +the coast of California, New Mexico, and Arizona. It inhabits the mountains bordering the +Saltón Sea basin in the Colorado Desert in California, and the southern portion of San Diego +County. In Arizona, it is found in the mountains around Tucson, near Phoenix, and north +of Yuma. In nature, it grows between 600 and 1500 m elevation in the desert, down to sea +level near the coast, between latitudes 25° and 31° N. There is a major effort underway in +the U.S., Mexico, and Israel to domesticate jojoba; e.g., there are reports that is has been +planted in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Egypt, Haiti, Israel, Paraguay, Rhodesia, +the Sahel, and South Africa. The Israeli examples are bearing fruit. We are anxious to hear +more success stories. There seems to be no major difficulty in growing the plant in frost- +free, arid, subtropical, and tropical zones, but not many success stories have materialized. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Desert (with little or no frost) to Thom +through Tropical Desert Forest Life Zones, jojoba is reported to tolerate annual precipitation +of 2 to 11 dm, annual temperature of 16 to 26°C, and pH of 7.3 to 8.2.®^ Jojoba is usually +restricted to well-drained, coarse, well-aerated desert soils that are neutral to alkaline, with +an abundance of phosphoms. It grows best where the annual rainfall exceeds 30 cm, but +does exist where less then 12.5 cm occurs. Where rainfall is ca.75 mm, the jojoba grows +to ca.l m tall; where rainfall is 250 to 400 mm, it may attain 5 m. It tolerates full sun and +temperatures ranging from 0 to 47°C. Mature shmbs tolerate temperatures as low as - 10°C, +but seedlings are sensitive to light frosts just below freezing. +Cultivation — Jojoba seeds retain nearly 99% germinability after 6 months, and 38% +after 11 years stored in an open shed. Germination is good in alkaline sands at temperatures +of 27 to 38°C. Seedlings are frost sensitive. Field seeding can be done with a modified +cotton planter. Seedlings need two or three irrigations during the first summer and must be +protected from animals. Weeding is recommended after each irrigation. Adventitious roots +may form on 50 to 80% of the cuttings treated with growth-promoting substances. Plants +could start producing seeds in 5 years, but full production would not be attained for 8 to +10 years. Using a 2 x 4 m spacing in planting would permit the planting of about 500 +female and 50 male pollinating plants per hectare. Apomictic plants are known, lessening +the need for male nonfruiting plants in the orchard. Suggested methods for planting include: +Close spacing, ca. 15 cm apart, resulting in hedge-rows, with the seeds planted in flat borders +or in a slightly depressed ditch so as to keep them moist until they germinate (ca.lO to 14 +days). Male plants should be thinned out to about a 5-1 ratio, finally allowing about 2,500 +plants per hectare, with possible annual yields of 2.5 MT/ha seed. Propagation by cuttings +from selected shrubs could increase seed and/or oil yields. Generally, flowering nodes and +leaf nodes alternate, but some plants flower at nearly all nodes; some plants produce more +than one flower per node. Transplanted seedlings survive readily, if the roots are pruned. +Hence, cuttings could be made in a nursery for later transplanting in the field. The more +efficient spacing for this method of planting is in rows 4 m apart, and the bushes in the +rows 2 m apart. Male bushes should be interspersed throughout the grove (about 1,500 +female and 250 male plants per hectare), possibly yielding ca. 2.75 MT/ha seed. When +softwood cuttings were treated with IBA, 4 mg/g of talc, they rooted 100% in 38 days.^^* +Harvesting — In the wild, the only method for harvesting has been hand-collecting from +under the plants, since mature seeds fall from the bush. Under cultivation, hedge-row, or +orchard-like plantations, without undergrowth, seeds could be raked from under the bushes +and then picked up by suction. Pruning the lower branches might be advantageous if this +method be used. A device could be designed to pick the seeds from the bush prior to the +time of falling. Cost of harvesting would depend on the method. +Yields and economics — Buchanan and Duke^^^ accept a figure near 2,250 kg/ha for +yields of jojoba. Individual plants may yield 5 kg (dry weight) seeds and more, of which +275 +50% (43 to 56%) by weight is a colorless, odorless liquid wax commonly called “jojoba +oil” 230 Yermanos^"*^ suggested that a 5-year-old orchard should yield about 825 kg of nuts +per hectare, increasing to 4,125 kg/ha in the 12th year, suggesting a renewable “ oil” yield +of ca.2 MT/year. Such yields may be optimistic, even for well-managed plantations. Esti­ +mates of the amount of wild nuts available each year range from 100 million to 1 billion +pounds, the plants growing over 100 million acres in California, Mexico, and Arizona. +Usually plants in cultivation yield oil in 6 to 7 years; the Israelis report their best specimens +yield 2 or more kg of seed in the 4th year; wild plants yield about 1 kg of nuts per year, +and cultivars should yield twice that amount or more. The seeds contain up to 50% “ oil” . +In 1958, long before the whale oil became endangered, the value of Simmondsia “ oil” as +a hard wax was estimated at $.55/kg. Because of the present demand for the wax and oil, +jojoba is being considered as a noncompetitive crop, that could replace wheat and cotton in +Texas and southern California, with as much as the yield from 70,000 hectares being absorbed +by industry. The Chemical Marketing Reporter^^' stated that jojoba prices doubled in 6 +months to $200/gal. The cost of establishing a plantation can vary from $3,000/ha on land +with irrigation available to $5,600/ha on rough desert terrain .O n ce established, mainte­ +nance costs are low — only ca. $200/year. One hectare can yield 1,125 to 2,250 kg oil per +year. (Recent prices have approached $50/kg, suggesting to the uninitiated yields of +$100,000/ha, right up there with the hyperoptimistic ginseng yields. In either case, a wait +of at least 5 years for the first return might seem interminable. Prices have gone down +considerably since this was sarcastically written.) +Energy — With 641 plants per hectare, the aerial phytomass (over 6% of total phytomass) +was 1,573 kg/ha and annual productivity only 327 kg/ha.Daugherty et al.^^ were optimistic, +but not so optimistic as Yérmanos about jojoba oil yields. They projected ca.500 kg/ha oil +for jojoba, ca.nearly 100 for cottonseed, ca.200 for flaxseed, ca.250 for soybean, and nearly +300 for safflower (based on 10-year averages for the conventional oilseeds, speculation for +jojoba). +Biotic factors — One fungus {Sturnella sim m ondsiae Bonar) occurs on the leaves, calyxes, +and peduncles, but little damages the plant in this country. P hytophthora p a ra sitica and +Pythium aphaniderm atum may cause root rot in jojoba plantations. Cuttings are sensitive to +A lternaría tenuis, seedlings to Sclerotium bataticola and Fusarium oxysporum , A scale +insect that inhabits the leaves also is not detrimental. There is a harmful pest, probably a +microlepidopoterous insect, that destroys a large part of the wild crop by consuming the +very young ovules. One spraying at the proper time might eliminate this damage. The scale +Situlaspis yu ccae and the unique mealybug P uto sim m ondsia have been reported. +276 Handbook of Nuts +TELFAIRIA OCCIDENTALIS Hook.f. (CUCURBITACEAE) — Fluted Pumpkin, Oyster +Nut +Uses — Young shoots and leaves are used as a pot-herb. Leaves are much sought after +by sheep and goats. Seeds are eaten and are said to have a pleasant almond-like flavor, but +the bitter seed-coat must be discarded. Seeds are boiled and eaten or put in soups, or used +as the source of a nondrying oil for native cookery and soap-making. Seeds are also used +for polishing native earthenware pots. Dry shell of the fruit is sometimes used for utensils. +Dried seeds are powdered and used to thicken soups. Dried fiber from macerated stems is +used like loofa for paper.^^’^^^^^® +Folk medicine — No data available. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 579 calories, 21.9 g +protein, 48.0 g fat, 25.1 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 g fiber, 5.6 g ash, 89.6 mg Ca, and 610 +mg P. Per 100 g, the leaf (ZMB) is reported to contain 346 calories, 21.2 to 21.3 g protein, +12.9 to 13.2 g fat, 51.5 to 52.0 g total carbohydrates, 12.5 to 12.8 g fiber, and 13.9 to +14.0 g ash.^^ BurkilP^ reports that the oil contains 37% oleic acid, 21% palmitic acid, 21% +stearic acid, 15% linoleic acid. Seeds contain a trace of alkaloid, while none has been +detected in the roots.On a wet weight basis, the pulped leaves contain 11 mg beta-carotene, +juice 9, fiber 1, supernatant 1, and wet LPC 8 mg beta-carotene per 100 g. Under stored +conditions, the LPC lost 82% beta-carotene and 58% xanthophyll over 12 months.Ca.70% +of the total N and 63% of the protein N was extracted; the potential protein extractability +is ca.90%. The oil, by weight, contains 16% palmitic-, 3% stearic-, 23% oleic-, 23% linoleic- +and 19% alpha-eleostearic-acids. Seeds of T. occidentalis contain fairly large amounts of +alpha-eleostearic and no linolenic glycerides, while the seed fat of T. pedata derives from +the usual mixture of saturated, oleic, linoleic, and linoleic acids. +Description — Perennial, dioecious liana, up to 33 m long; stems herbaceous, ribbed, +glabrous or pubescent, becoming thickened when old. Leaves petiolate, 3- to 5-foliolate; +median leaflet elliptic, acuminate, acute, tapered into the petiolule, entire or shallowly +sinuate-toothed, glabrous or sparsely hairy or punctate, 3-veined from near base with 2 well- +developed ascending lateral veins, 6 to 17 cm long, 3 to 10 cm broad; lateral leaflets similar, +with petiolules 0.2 to 2 cm long, petiole 1.9 to 8 cm long, pubescent; probracts 5 to 8 mm +long. Male flowers in racemes 10 to 30 cm long, the bracts 2.5 to 8 mm long, 1.5 to 3 mm +broad, pedicels 8 to 35 mm long, receptacle-tube campanulate, 2.5 to 3.5 mm long, densely +glandular-hairy inside above; lobes triangular, glandular-dentate, 2 to 4 mm long; petals +about 2.5 cm long, 1.2 cm broad, white with dark-purple marks at base inside, or creamy +white with red-purple spot (eye); stamens 3, anthers coherent in center of flower; female +flowers stalked. Fruit pale glaucous green or whitish with waxy bloom when ripe, flesh +yellowish, ellipsoid, tapering at both ends, rather sharply 10-ribbed, up to 60 (to 90) cm +long. Seeds numerous, very broadly and asymmetrically ovate, 3.2 to 3.6 cm long, 3.3 to +3.7 cm broad, and 1.0 to 1.2 cm thick; testa smooth with endocarpic fibrous sheath poorly +developed or a b s e n t.F lo w e rs and fruits year-round. +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, the fluted pumpkin, or +CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, low pH, poor soil, and shade.Very similar to +the following species, which is the commercial source of true oyster nut oil.^^ The true +oyster nut has purplish-pink flowers, whereas the fluted pumpkin has white flowers with a +purplish eye. (2n = 24.) +Distribution — Native to tropical Africa from Sierra Leone to Angola, the Congo Area; +Fernando Po, U ganda.Introduced to tropical America. +Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest +Life Zones, the fluted pumpkin is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 22.8 +dm (mean of 2 cases = 18.2), annual temperature of 24.4 to 26.2°C (mean of 2 cases = +277 +25.3°C), and pH of 5.0 to 5.0 (mean of 2 cases = 5.0).®^ Thrives best in closed-forest +country,ca. 1,200 m above sea level.Apparently best adapted to a hot, humid climate +(e.g., TMF), common in littoral hedges, and lowland rain-forests up to about 1,200 m.^^® +Its occurrence at the edges of forests may be the consequence of previous cultivation. It +thrives in plantings in Talamanca, Costa Rica. +Cultivation — Cultivated in some places, especially S. Nigeria and by some tribes in +Ghana. Grown on stakes or trained up trees.Propagated by seeds either planted near trees +upon which to climb, or more often allowed to sprawl over the ground, as is done in Nigeria. +Once established, plants are perennial for several years. Grows well in any good garden +soil where there is plenty of heat and moisture. +Harvesting — Leaves and shoots are picked continuously as the plant grows.Fruits +are collected whenever ripe and needed. No special season, as plants flower and fruit +yearround, and the fruits are gradually ripened throughout the year.^^® +Yields and economics — Often cultivated for the seeds by natives in West Tropical +Africa, East Tropical Africa, and Southeast Asia; and probably elsewhere in the hot, humid +tropics. Mainly used for the seeds as a vegetable and for oil, and the stem for the fibers for +making paper. +Energy — This plant climbed up trees in Talamanca like kudzu does in tropical America, +and fruited copiously. Its relatively high seed-oil content suggests that this is as promising +an energy species as China’s Hodgsonia. No doubt the foliage could provide LPC (leaf +protein concentrate) and the seeds oil, with the residues being used as by-products for energy +production. +Biotic factors — No serious pests or diseases have been reported. +278 Handbook of Nuts +TELFAIRIA PEDATA (Sm. ex Sims) Hook.f. (CUCURBITACEAE) — Oyster nut, Zanzibar +Oilvine, Telfairia nuts, Jikungo +Uses — Oyster nut is cultivated for its edible seeds^^"^ and oil yield (about 62%). The +fruits are used in soups, and the nuts are used in confectionery and chocolates, either alone +or as a partial substitute for Brazil nuts or almonds, and are quite palatable fresh or roasted, +as well as pickled. The seeds are the source of Castanha Oil, used in manufacture of soaps, +cosmetics, salad dressings, paints, and candles. One quote from an unpublished W. E. Bailey +typescript, “ Possibly the oil can be converted into explosives, just as the Germans have +done with Romanian soy beans. The oil is almost indistinguishable from olive oil. The nuts +may be pounded, cooked in water, and eaten as a cereal (porridge). The kernel has a high +vitamin content, and residue from the kernel after the oil has been extracted can be used +for livestock feed.^^® However, Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk^^^ describe the seed-cake as +“ useless for stock feeding on account of its bitterness” . +Folk medicine — Medicinally, oyster nuts have laxative properties, and women in Usa- +mabar eat the nut immediately after childbirth to cause early contraction of the pelvis, +increase the flow of milk, and insure an early return of their strength so they can return to +normal duties in a day or two.^^* East Africans use the seed oil for stomach ailments and +rheumatism, the leaf as a bitter tonic. Chagga use the seed as a puerperal tonic and lactagogue. +The plant reportedly has taenifuge properties, especially the seed. +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 31.1 g protein, 66.2 g +fat, 2.7 g ash, 10.5 mg Ca, 596 mg P, and 4.3 mg Fe.*^ Per 100 g, the kernel (51 to 60% +of seed) is reported to contain 4.4 g H2O, 29.7 g protein, 63.3 g fat, 2.6 g ash, 10 mg Ca, +279 +570 mg P, and 4.1 mg Fe.^® An unpublished London Fruit Exchange report on file in the +Germplasm Introduction and Evaluation Laboratory, gives 6.56% moisture, 19.63% protein, +36.02% fat, 28.45% N-free extract, 7.3% fiber, and 2.04% ash. The oil is yellowish with +a brownish fluorescence, practically odorless, with a low acid value, and possesses a pleasant, +slightly sweet taste. Somewhat viscous, it is liquid at room temperature, deposits stearine +on standing, saponifies readily, and contains stearic, palmitic, and telfairic acids, as well +as about 27% protein (as compared to 40% in soy beans). The shell, especially the bast, +contains abundant tannin and a bitter crystalline substance. Seed husks contain three antitumor +compounds, Cucurbitacin B, D, and E, as well as tannin. +Toxicity — Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk attribute headaches to eating the fruits. +Description — Perennial dioecious, herbaceous vine, to 30 m long; the stem herbaceous, +ribbed, glabrous. Leaves alternate, digitate, 5- to 7-foliolate, the leaflets lanceolate, elliptic +or narrowly ovate or obovate, penninerved, obscurely sinuate-toothed, to 13 x 6 cm. Male +flowers pinkish purple, in racemes on long stems, opening in sequence, female flower single +on shorter stem. Fruit a green gourd-like ellipsoid pepo, 32 to 45 cm long, 16 to 25 cm in +diameter, bluntly 10-ribbed, weighing up to 30 kg, filled with a dense fleshy pulp in which +seeds are embedded (difficult to separate seed from pulp). Seeds 60 to 200, to 35 mm in +diameter, kidney-bean shaped, rich in oil, tasting like almond; kernel protected by two shells, +the outer tough, fibrous, the inner hard and brittle; outer shell removed by peeling or burning, +the inner one splits with a blow, sometimes a machine known as a belt sander is used to +open the nuts.^^^-^^'^ +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, oyster nut, or cvs thereof, +is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, laterite, poor soil, and shade. +Distribution — Native to East Tropical Africa, especially in Mauritius, Zanzibar, Tan­ +zania, Pemba, and Mozambique. Cultivated throughout the area; especially in Kenya, Masai +District, Ngong, and formerly in the Mascarene Islands. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry Forest and +wetter Life Zones, oyster nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.2 to 15.3 dm +(mean of 4 cases = 11.1), annual temperature of 8.4 to 24.2°C (mean of 4 cases = 17.4°C), +and pH of 5.5 to 7.0 (mean of 3 cases = 6.3).®^ Oyster nut grows at the edges of forests, +enveloping the trees with its branches, while its trunk frequently attains a diameter of 45 +cm. In Africa, it ranges from 0 to 11(X) m altitude in lowland rain forest and riverine forest. +It grows well in a sheltered position with an eastern exposure, but without strong winds or +cold temperatures. It requires medium loams with good drainage, is deep-rooted and drought +resistant. It grows well up to 2000 m elevation in Kenya and Tanzania.^^^ +Cultivation — Oyster nut is propagated by seeds, which should be planted within 3 +months, as the oil dries out of the kernel, causing deterioration of the germ. Seeds, after +being soaked in water for 5 days, are planted in a nursery. They germinate in about 21 days. +When the seedlings are about 5 cm tall (2 to 3 months old), they are transplanted to the +base of trees which they will climb over and often kill — a fast grower, exceeding 20 m +in 15 months, if not pruned. The nursery offers protection to the seeds and small plants +which are eaten by insects and wild animals; also, the plants are easier to water in dry +seasons. Female plants are readily rooted from cuttings. If seed is sown directly in the field, +880 seeds per hectare, at 2 m apart, in double rows, spaced 4 m apart, is recommended. +Seed should be planted at half their eventual spacing, since there is no way of distinguishing +between the male and female plants until flowering takes place; 10 to 15 male vines needed +per hectare. Sometimes trellises are used, these 2 m high, erected 4 to 5 m apart, and +connected for the double rows of plants which are trained in opposite directions. This method +is expensive, mainly due to the cost of the trellises, and is suitable only to mountainous +regions where the posts would not be attacked by white ants. Green manures, compost, or +barnyard manure should be used freely from the time of planting. Also bone and fish manures +280 Handbook of Nuts +are used, these promoting good growth and fruiting. Lime is used to help control nematodes. +Vines should be kept weed free for the first year or so after planting on trellises. After that, +the plants will take care of themselves.^^^ +Harvesting — The crop begins to bear in 2 years, and continues for 20 to 25 years. +However, the plants will die out the third year in a poor soil. About 4 months are required +from flower to mature fruit. Plants produce 1 to 2 crops yearly, and may bear almost mature +fruits while they are flowering. The fruits are picked by hand as they are needed.Nuts +are soaked in water for about 8 hr in 3 changes of water to remove bitterness. +Yields and economics — Assuming 160 vines per ha, a conservative 10 fruits per vine, +each fruit with 140 nuts, each weighing ca.l2 g, the hectare could yield 2685 kg per seed. +Average yields of the nuts are 1000 to 2000 kg/ha. The oil content of the seed is about 62% +of its weight, or approximately 35% of the entire weight of the whole nut. This would +suggest an oil yield up to 700 kg/ha. Dr. T. W. Whitaker (personal communication, June +1982) suggests that this should be a promising species, but not so exciting as the Asian +H odgsonia of the cucurbit family. USDA germplasm teams to China should negotiate for +some of this subtropical species. +Energy — From the descriptions, the oyster nut would appear to have aerial biomass +attributes similar to or higher than our American weed, kudzu, often over 10 MT DM/ha. +One vine reached 12 m tall and 5 cm in diameter in 15 months. +Biotic factors — The major fungi attacking oyster nut are A rm illaria m ellea, C olleto­ +trichum sp., D id y m ella ly copers i d , and O idiopsis taurica. Virgin forests should be thor­ +oughly burned before planting to prevent disease. The main nematode, H eterodera m arioni, +is controlled by the natives using a lime dressing, as the seeding stage is most often attacked. +In Kenya, the major pests are ground squirrels and porcupines, which dig up recently planted +seed, and bucks and grasshoppers, which eat the sprouting seed. Mealy bugs, taken from +coffee trees and put on oyster nut vines, died.^^^ +281 +TERMINALIA CATAPPA L. (COMBRETACEAE) — Indian Almond, Myrobalan, Badam, +Almendro, Bengal almond, Kotamba, Tropical Almond +Uses — Indian almond is widely planted in the tropics and subtropics for ornamental, +shade, timber purposes, and for the edible nuts. It is cultivated mainly for the edible kernels, +used as substitute for almonds (e.g., in Chinese “ chicken and almonds” in Trinidad). Kernels +contain 50 to 55% colorless oil of excellent flavor, like almond oil in flavor, odor, and +specific gravity, highly esteemed in the Orient. Seeds may be eaten raw. Leaves are the +food of Tasar Silkworms, and are used as wrapping paper for small shop articles. Roots, +bark, and fruits are used in tanning. Fruits are a source of a black dye used in some parts +of eastern India to color teeth black. Wood chips in water give a yellow dye. Trees contain +a gum, which is the source of a black dye, a source of ink, and a cosmetic. Oil is used as +a substitute for groundnut- (Arachis), cottonseed- (Gossypium), and silk-cottonseed- (Bom- +bax) oils. Flowers yield a nectar. +Folk medicine — Reported to be anodyne, astringent, cardiotonic, collyrium, diuretic, +emetic, lactagogue, pectoral, purgative, sedative, stimulant, sudorific, tonic, and vermifuge, +Indian almond is a folk remedy for arthritis, bugbites, colic, condylomata, cough, diarrhea, +dysentery, ear ailments, eruptions, fever, gastritis, glossitis, headache, hemoptysis, insom­ +nia, leprosy, lumbago, neuroses, pyorrhea, rheumatism, scabies, skin ailments, sore throat. +282 Handbook of Nuts +stomach-ache, stomatitis, swellings, thrush, ulcers, wounds, and yaws.^*’^"^^ Ayurvedics +consider the fruits antibilious, antibronchitic, aphrodisiac, and astringent. In southern India, +the juice of the young leaves is put in an ointment for leprosy, scabies, and other skin +diseases; also used for colic and headache. Indochinese use the leaves with Dacrydium chips +and nutgrass rhizomes for dysentery; the fruit, with beeswax, for foul ulcers and hemato- +chezia. Indonesians apply the leaves to swollen rheumatic joints, using the kernel for a +laxative and lactagogue. Philippines use the leaf juice, cooked with the kernel oil, for leprosy; +and rubbed onto the breast for pain and numbness; or applied to rheumatic joints. Red leaves +are believed vermifuge. In the Solomon Islands, leaves, bark, and fruit are used for yaws.^"^^ +Nigerians apply the leaves, macerated in palm oil, for tonsilitis. Cubans take the leaf or +fruit decoction for hemoptysis, adding crushed leaves to the bath for skin rash. Haitians take +the bark decoction for bilious fevers. Costa Ricans used the bark decoction for crushed +nipples and uterorrhagia. Brazilians take the bark decoction for asthma, diarrhea, dysentery, +and fever. Colombians take the seed emulsion as pectoral.The root bark is given for +diarrhea and dysentery in French Guiana, the stem bark for bilious fevers. Mexicans make +a powder from the stems for condylomata.*^^ +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seeds are reported to contain 574 to 607 calories, 2.7 to +6.0 g H2O, 19.1 to 25.4 g protein, 52 to 56 g fat, 14.9 to 17.2 g total carbohydrate, 1.8 +to 14.6 g fiber, 2.4 to 4.0 g ash, 32 to 497 mg Ca, 789 to 957 mg P, 2.4 to 9.2 mg Fe, +70 mg Na, 784 mg K, 0.32 to 0.71 mg thiamine, 0.08 to 0.28 mg riboflavin, 0.6 to 0.7 +mg niacin, and 0 mg ascorbic acid. According to Leung, Butrum, and C h a n g , 94% of +the as-purchased nut is refuse, the husk only containing 35 calories, 0.4% moisture, 1.2 g +protein, 3.2 g fat, 1.0 g total carbohydrate, 0.1 g fiber, 0.2 g ash, 2 mg Ca, 47 mg P, 0.6 +mg Fe, 4 mg Na, 47 mg K, 0.02 mg thiamine, traces of riboflavin, and niacin, and no +ascorbic acid. Amino acid values are given as 14.7 arginine, — cystine, 1.7 histidine, 3.4 +isoleucine, 7.4 leucine, 2.3 lysine, 7.2 aspartic acid, 24.3 glutamic acid, 4.0 alanine, 6.3 +glycine, 4.2 proline, 4.1 serine, 0.9 methionine, 4.2 phenylalanine, 2.9 threonine, — +tryptophane, 3.2 tyrosine, and 4.8 valine.Unfortunately, the refuse figures do not add +up to 100. Air-dried kernels contain 3.51% moisture, 52.02% fat, 25.4% protein, 14.6% +fiber, 5.98% sugars (as glucose). The seed oil contains 1.62% myristic-, 55.49% palmitic, +6.34% stearic-, 23.26% oleic-, and 7.55% linoleic-acids. The oil-cake (7.88% N) contains +8% albumin, 15% globulin, negligible prolamine, and 7.5% gluten. The shell contains +ca. 25% pentosans, and hence, is a good source for making furfural. The leaves and fruits +contain corilagin, gallic acid, ellagic acid, and brevifolin carboxylic acid, whereas the bark +and wood contain ellagic acid, gallic acid, ( + )catechin, (-)epicatechin, and ( + )leuco- +cyanidin.^^ +Description — Handsome, spreading, pagodiform, deciduous tree, medium- to large­ +sized, 13 to 27 m tall, 1 to 1.5 m diameter, with horizontal whorls of branches about 1 to +2 m apart; bark smooth, brownish-gray; leaves opposite, simple, leathery, green, turning +red before falling, shining, shedding leaves twice a year (February and September), 12 to +30 cm long, 7.5 to 15 cm wide, obovate, tip rounded or somewhat acute, base narrowed, +slightly auriculate, petioles about 2.5 cm long; flowers small, greenish-white, arranged +crowded in short spikes 15 to 20 cm long, arising in axils of leaves, malodorous; stamens +10 to 12, in staminal flowers towards the apex; fruits yellow-green or reddish, hard, an +angular drupe, size of a plum, slightly compressed on 2 sides, broadly oval in outline, +elliptical and 2-winged in transverse section, 3.5 to 7 cm long, with thin fleshy pericarp, +edible, but with a hard corky interior; seeds slender, pointed, oblong elliptical, 3 to 4 cm +long, 3 to 5 mm thick. Germination phanerocotylar, the cotyledons convolute. Flowers June +to August, fruits June to November, bearing two crops of fruit annually before dropping +leaves. +Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, Indian al­ +283 +mond, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate full sunlight, high pH, laterite, lime, low pH, +mine-spoil, poor soil, salt spray, sand, shade, slope, waterlogging, and wind.^^*^^^’^^^ +Distribution — Indigenous to Andaman Islands and islands of Malay Peninsula, now +widely cultivated in the tropics of the Old and New Worlds. Extensively planted in tropical +India and Sri Lanka, in West Africa from Senegal to Cameroons, Madagascar, Malaysia, +and East Indies. Now pantropical.^^^ +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Wet +Forest Life Zones, Indian almond is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 42.9 +dm (mean of 92 cases = 17.7), annual temperature of 20.4 to 29.9 (mean of 66 cases = +25.2), and pH of 4.5 to 8.78 (mean of 13 cases = 6.1).®^ Though it grows well in sand or +shingle, it also thrives in marl and permeable siliceous limestone. It volunteers only in loose +sand, muck, or marl.^^^ Tolerant of sand and salt, it has been used to stabilize beaches. +Indian almond thrives in coastal forests in most tropical areas, from sea level to 1,000 m +altitude, preferring coastal soils or light loamy soils. It has been recommended for tropical +land soils. According to +M orton,it grows equally well in medium shade or full sun, and +is highly wind resistant. +Cultivation — Propagated exclusively from seeds, which remain viable for at least one +year. In India, whole fruits, exhibiting 25% germination, are planted. Seeds germinate in +2 to 4 weeks. The tree is extensively planted for the red foliage, as few other trees in the +tropics develop colored foliage. The tree competes well with weeds. +Harvesting — Rotations of 10 to 15 years are average. Fruits are harvested as they ripen. +They have a very hard shell, which is easier to crack after the nuts are dry, often cracked +between stones. In India, there are two crops a year, spring (April to May) and fall (October +to November). There is more-or less constant fruiting in the Caribbean. Perhaps the crop +would be desirable to harvest if mechanical means of cracking and cleaning the nuts were +devised. Kernels yield nearly 55% oil by extraction and 35% by expression. +Yields and economics — Trees may attain 6 m height in 3 years. A lO-year-old plantation +is expected to yield 2.25 to 3.6 MT/ha/year.^^^ Grown as a shade tree for cardamon, Indian +almond contributed annually 9,300 kg/ha leaf m ulch.In Jamaica, nuts run $0.02 to $0.10 +each, normally selling for $0.05 each in 1976.^^^ +Energy — The wood (sp. gr. 0.59) is often employed as fuel. Erroneously equating +Term inalia catappa a synonym of B ucida bu ceras, Cannell^^ suggests that the annual litterfall +is only 1.7 MT/ha in the Guanica Forest of Puerto Rico, the current annual increment only +2 MT for a forest with 2,160 trees >5 cm DBH, averaging 7.8 m, basal area of 10.7 m%a +and standing aerial biomass of 39.1 MT/ha, 36.9 in wood, bark, and branches, 1.7 in fruits +and foliage. +Biotic factors — Browne^^ lists the following fungi as affecting this species: C ercospora +catappae, D ip lo d ia catappae, F om es durissim us, F. fa stu o sa s, M yxorm ia term inaliae, P hel- +linus gilvas, P h yllosticta catappae, P olyrhizon term inaliae, S clerotiam rolfsii, and Spha- +celom a term inaliae. Also listed are D endrophthoe fa lca ta (Angiospermae); A m blyrhinus +p o rico llis. A po d era s tranquebaricus, A racceru s fa scic a la tu s, O ncideres cingulata (Coleóp­ +tera); C occu s hesperidum , S aissetia coffeae, S. nigra (Hemiptera); A crocercops erioplaca, +A . ordin atella, A . supplex, A . term inaliae, A n th eraeapaph ia, D asych ira m endosa, E u proctis +scintillans, L ym antria am pia, M etanastria hyrtaca, P a ra sa lepida, S clepa celtis, T rabala +vishnoa, Trypanophora semihyalina (Lepidoptera); and Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus, R. karna +(Thysanoptera). In India, parakeets steal much of the crop. According to Reed^^® the flowers +yield a nectar for honey, which is difficult to collect by bees. In addition, he lists the fungi +C ercospora catappae, G nom ia sp., H arknessia term inaliae, P h om opsis term inaliae, P oly- +p o ru s calcutensis, and S clerotiam rolfsii. It is also attacked by the nematode, R otylenchas +reniformis.^^'^^^ For Puerto Rico, Stevenson^®® lists F usiococcum m icrosperm um , R hyti- +dhysterium rafalam , and T ram etes corragata. +284 Handbook of Nuts +TRAP A NATANS L. and other species (TRAPACEAE) — Water-Chestnut, Jesuit Nut, Water +Caltrops +Uses — Water-chestnuts are used as a nut, fresh or roasted, made into a flour, served as +a cooked vegetable, or made into a confection, candied much as true chestnuts in Europe. +According to Rosengarten,^®^ they have been consumed in central Europe since neolithic +time. Fresh or boiled nuts are good in salads, having a floury texture and an agreeable nutty +flavor. Nuts are often made into rosaries. Roast seed are sometimes used as a coffee substitute. +Since water-chestnuts resemble water hyacinths, it has been suggested that they might be +used to supplant the water hyacinth, an economic approach to biological control. +Folk medicine — Reported to be alterative, astringent, refrigerant, and tonic, various +species of Trapa are used in folk remedies for anasarca, bronchitis, cancer, cough, diarrhea, +dropsy, fever, flux, rinderpest, and sunstroke.^’ In Japan, the fruits are used in folk remedies +for esophageal, gastric, gastrointestinal, lung, stomach, and uterine cancers. Ayurvedics +use fruits of T. bispinosa (figured) for biliousness, blood disorders, erysipelas, fractures, +fatigue, inflammations, leprosy, strangury, and urinary disorders. Yunani, who consider the +fruit aperitif, aphrodisiac, and febrifuge, use the fruit for bad teeth, biliousness, bronchitis, +fever, lumbago pain, sore throat, and thirst. Cambodians use the infusion of the rind of the +fruit for asthenia due to malaria or some other type of fever. +285 +Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit of T. bispinosa is reported to contain 348 calories, +12.2 g protein, 1.2 g fat, 82.7 g total carbohydrate, 2.4 g fiber, 3.9 g ash, 160 mg Ca, 339 +mg P, 3.6 mg Fe, 62.5 mg Na, 1345 mg K, 0.0 ¡ig beta-carotene equivalent, 0.39 mg +thiamine, 0.18 mg riboflavin, 5.95 mg niacin, and 20.8 mg ascorbic acid. The seed of 7. +bispinosa, per 100 g, is reported to contain 15.7 g protein, 1.0 g fat, 79.7 g total carbohydrate, +2.0 g fiber, 3.7 g ash, 66.7 mg Ca, 500 mg P, 2.7 mg Fe, 163 mg Na, 2166 mg K, 0.17 +mg thiamine, 0.23 mg riboflavin, 2.00 mg niacin, and 30.0 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, +the fruit of 7. natans is reported to contain 11.9 g protein and 1.0 g f a t . The W ealth o f +India^^ reports that the kernels contain: moisture, 70.0; protein, 4.7; fat, 0.3; fiber, 0.6; +other carbohydrates, 23.3; and mineral matter, 1.1%; calcium 20; phosphorus, 150; and +iron, 0.8 mg/100 g. Other minerals reported are copper, 1.27; manganese, 5.7; magnesium, +38; sodium, 49; and potassium, 650 mg/100 g. Iodine (50.6 |x/l(X) g) is also present. The +vitamin contents are thiamine, 0.05; riboflavin, 0.07; nicotinic acid, 0.6; and vitamin C, 9 +mg/100 g; vitamin A, 20 IU/100 g. Kernels contain 15.8 mg/100 g oxalates (dry wt). Beta- +amylase and much phosphorylase have been reported in the kernels. The nutritive value of +flour, prepared from dried kernels, is as follows: moisture, 10.6; protein, 8.0; fat, 0.6; and +minerals, 2.6%, calcium, 69; phosphorus, 343; iron, 2.8; and thiamine, 0.44 mg/100 g. +The starch, isolated from the flour, consists of 15% amylose, 85% amylopectin.^® According +to Hager’s Handbook, the nut (7. natans) contains 37% water, 8 to 10% crude protein, +0.7% fat, 1.3% crude fiber, 49% N-free extract (52% starch, 3.2% dextrose). The fruit husk +contains 10% tannin. +Description — Hardy aquatic annual or perennial herbs, rooted in the mud, with un­ +branched stems 0.5 to 2 m long. Plants usually floating with submerged sessile leaves, the +lowest opposite, the others alternate, pinnatifid, often functioning as roots; floating leaves +in a large rosette, often beautifully variegated, rhombic to nearly orbicular, glabrous above, +pubescent at least along the veins beneath, about 7.5 cm in diameter, petioles to 17 cm +long, pubescent, often with a fusiform swelling. Flowers solitary, tetramerous, in axils of +floating leaves, borne centrally on short stalks above the surface of the water, small incon­ +spicuous, 1 to 2 cm across, white; sepals narrowly triangular, keeled accrescent and indurated +in fruit, persistent and forming 2, 3, or 4 horns; petals white, about 8 mm long, caducous. +Nut solitary, indéhiscent, 2 to 3.5 cm long, 2 to 5.5 cm wide; roots abundant, much- +branched. Flowers June to July; fruits autumn. +Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, water-chestnut, or +CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate weeds and waterlogging.®^ Although many species and +varieties have been described, I am inclined to accept the opinion of The W ealth o f India, +“ the more prevalent view seems to be that T rapa is a monotypic genus represented by 7. +natans Linn, a polymorphic species’’. Great variation is found in size of fruit and in number +and development of the horns. Some variations seem to be due to edaphic factors, as +abnormally high calcium or low potassium and nitrogen concentrations of the water in which +they grow.^^® The related 7. bicornis, the Chinese Ling, is locally important as a food crop. +7. bispinosa is widely cultivated in India and Kashmir, as the “ Singhara Nut’’. (2n = 36, +40, 48).®^*^'^*^®^ +Distribution — Native to central and eastern Europe and Asia, water-chestnuts have been +used for food since Neolithic times. They were introduced in 19th century America. The +plants spread and became established in the eastern U.S., often choking waterways or +crowding out other plants.^^® +Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest +Life Zones, water-chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.3 to 13.2 dm +(mean of 5 cases = 8.1), annual temperature of 8.3 to 21.0°C (mean of 5 cases = 11.4°C), +and pH of 5.9 to 7.2 (mean of 3 cases = 6.7).®^ Hardy to Zone 5; average annual minimum +temperature of -23.3 to -20.6°C ( - 10 to -5^).^"^^ T rapa natans is more hardy than the +286 Handbook of Nuts +Ling (r. bicornis). The former thrives in ponds and lakes, along slow streams and in stagnant +waters, growing best in nutrient-rich but not strongly calcareous waters. It is mainly temperate +in climatic requirements. +Cultivation — Water-chestnut is propagated by seed, which must be kept in water before +they are sown. They lose their power to germinate quickly if out of water. Seeds are sown +in mud. Plants grown in pools or tubs in eastern North America with 5 to 10 cm of loamy +soil and filled with water. Plants may also be simply laid on the surface of the water, and +they adapt themselves to the situation. +Harvesting — Harvesting the fruits (nuts or seeds) is by hand-picking, sometimes by +boat, depending on the size of the field or pond.^^^ In India, fruits are ready for harvest +about 3 weeks after flowering, i.e., from September to December (to February). At first +nuts are harvested once every 2 weeks, then every week, and then nearly every day from +November onward. +Yields and economics — Biomass yields of 10 MT/ha seem reasonable. Yields of singhara +nut run 4.8 to 6.2 MT/ha. The W ealth o f India reports yields of 1,760 to 4,440 (to 13,200) +kg nut per ha.^° +Energy — In Japan, the maximum biomass in a floating water-chestnut community was +3 MT/ha at two seasonal peaks, dipping below 1 MT/ha between peaks. But the total dead +material may add up to nearly 8 MT/ha, indicating annual biomass potential (life expectancy +of the leaves averaged less than 1 month). +Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack water-chestnut: S eptoria tra- +paen atan tis and T richoderm a flavum.^'^^ A leafspot, caused by B ipolar is tetram era, seriously +affects India’s crop. Captan is reported to control the spread. The Singhara beetle, G alerucella +birm anica is an important widespread pest, controlled in India with 5% BHC.^® Dusting +tobacco or Pyrodust 40(X) at 44 kg/ha kills adults and grubs. Chironomid larvae, feeding on +petioles and pedicels, may induce malformation of the fruits. H altica cyanea, the blue beetle, +feeds and breeds on the leaves. B agous trapae damages soft submerged stems. The aphid +R hopalosiphum nym pheae occurs on upper leaves, sometimes in large numbers, and often +in company with the coccinellid beetles P ullus nobilus and P. piescen s. Larvae of N ym phula +gan geticalis excavate shelters in the swollen petioles. B agous vicinus and N anophyes rufipes +also bore into the petiole.^®’ +287 +TRECULIA AFRICANA Decne. (MORACEAE) — African Breadfruit, African Boxwood, +Okwa, Muzinda, Ukwa +Uses — Seeds are removed from the pulp of African breadfruit by macerating with water, +and then eaten cooked, or ground into a meal or flour, or used in soups. Conversely, the +seeds can be roasted until the testa becomes brittle for easy removal, the cotyledons then +consumed. According to Makinde et al.,*^® the seeds are widely consumed only among the +Igbo of Nigeria. “ Almond Milk” is a beverage made from this meal. Seeds may be roasted +or boiled, peeled and eaten as a dessert nut, or fried in oil. Seeds, with a groundnut flavor, +also yield an edible oil. Seeds or oil are put in soaps. Seeds are also used to flavor alcoholic +beverages. Heartwood is golden-yellow or yellow-brown (though the very narrow sapwood +is yellow-white), very dense and heavy, faintly elastic and flexible, of fine even structure; +usable for furniture, wood carving, inlay work and turnery; timber usually marketed as +African Boxwood. +Folk medicine — Reported to be laxative, tonic, and vermifuge, African breadfruit is a +folk remedy for cough, fever, leprosy, neck ailments, tooth extraction, roundworms, and +swelling.Nigerians use the bark decoction for constipation and coughs. Medicinally, a +root decoction is used as febrifuge and vermifuge, or drunk as a tonic after illness. It is +used for roundworms in children. Bark is used for coughs and as a laxative, and for leprosy +Chemistry — Per 1(X) g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 415 calories, 13.9 g +protein, 6.2 g fat, 77.5 g total carbohydrate, 1.8 g fiber, 2.4 g ash, 140 mg Ca, and 349 +mg Seeds contain ca.4 to 7% total lipids, Makinde et al.^^® reporting 5% oil, 13% crude +protein. Of the protein extracted, glutelins constituted 53.3%, 23.8% albumins, and 33.8% +globulins. Makinde et al.^^® give the amino acid composition shown in Table 1. Table 2*^® +compares defatted ukwa protein with other foods. Remember that defatted seeds are not +directly comparable to the usual seed analysis (defatted ukwa seeds contain 19%, cf. 13% +288 Handbook of Nuts +Table 1 +AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF T. +AFRICAN A (UKWA) PROTEIN*’» +m&16 g mg46 g +Amino acids of N Amino acids of N +Aspartic acid 105 Isoleucine 56 +Threonine 52 Leucine 74 +Serine 67 Tyrosine 56 +Glutamic acid 137 Phenylalanine 76 +Proline 47 Lysine 62 +Glycine 72 Histidine 38 +Alanine 40 Ammonia 18 +Half-cystine 8 Arginine 79 +Valine 61 Tryptophan 2 +Methionine 9 +Table 2 +ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID CONTENT OF DEFATTED UKWA SEED PROTEIN +COMPARED TO SOME OTHER SEED PROTEINS, MAIZE, AND EGG*’» +mg of amino acid per 16 g of nitrogen +Defatted +Ukwa FACVWHO NAS^RC Harosoy Whole Kidney +Amino acids seed (1973) (1980) soybean Cowpeas maize beans +Egg +Histidine 38 17 26 29 23 24 26 +Isoleucine 56 40 42 42 40 40 63 42 +Leucine 74 70 70 80 76 196 88 81 +Lysine 62 55 51 65 68 25 67 67 +Total SAA 17 35 26 10 10 19 60 9 +Total arom. A A 132 60 73 49 53 44 99 53 +Threonine 52 40 35 37 37 47 51 +42 +Valine 61 50 48 46 48 54 68 +51 +Tryptophan 2 10 11 18 14 6 34 +15 +CP for whole seed). The seed fat contains 24.1% palmitic-, 11.7% stearic-, 46% oleic-, +and 18% linoleic-acids. Edet et al.^’^ report the seeds to contain 7.8% moisture in terms of +wet weight; and in terms of dry weight, 13.4% protein, 18.9% fat, 1.4% fiber, 2.1% ash, +58.1% carbohydrate, 3.0% oxalate, and per 100 g, 7 mg Na, 184 mg Mg, 18 mg Ca, 585 +mg K, 382 mg P, 3.9 mg Cu, 1.6 mg Fe, 0.20 mg Cr, 7.5 mg Zn, 6.0 mg beta-carotene, +0.5 mg thiamin, 0.3 mg riboflavin, 45 mg ascorbic acid. +Toxicity — Sap of the male tree is caustic and toxic, and if applied on cotton to a carious +tooth, will cause it to fall out. No evidence supports the idea that leaves falling into water- +holes are poisonous to horses. +Description — Unbuttressed medium-to-large tree, up to 27 m tall and 3 m in girth, bole +cylindrical or squarish, fluted at base up to 7 m, bark pale-gray, smooth, latex white; +branchlets purple-gray, pithy. Leaves alternate, simple, glabrous, glossy above, elliptic to +ovate-elliptic, 20 to 25 cm long, 7.5 to 12 cm wide, sometimes larger, apex shortly pointed, +base unequally rounded, petiole very short. Flowers dioecious, male and female flowers in +separate inflorescences; male flower-heads globular, 5 cm in diameter, brownish-yellow, +very shortly pedunculate, stamens 3. Fruits spherical, up to 45 cm in diameter, and 16 kg +in weight, subsessile on the trunk and main limbs, covered with coarse, spine-like tubercles, +becoming yellow-brown and soft when ripe. Seeds very numerous, over 1,500 per fruit. +289 +smooth, ellipsoid, buried in spongy pulp, ca.1.25 cm long. Flowers January to February +fruits February to March (Africa). +Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, African breadfruit, or cvs +thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, low pH, and waterlogging.^^ +Distribution — Native of West Africa (Guinea, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Ca- +meroons. Sierra Leone, Ghana), from Senegal to Angola, Uganda and Nile Land.^^® +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life +Zones, African breadfruit is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 24.1 dm +(mean of 3 cases = 18.3), annual temperature of 23.5 to 26.6°C (mean of 3 cases = +25.4°C), and pH of 5.0 to 5.3 (mean of 2 cases = 5.2).®^ Evergreen and deciduous forests. +Tree of tropical forests in comparatively dry zones and in villages where planted. Soil under +the tree is moist throughout the dry season from condensation. It is usually found near +streams or in swampy forests. +Cultivation — Frequently planted in villages and about homesteads. +Harvesting — No data available. +Yields and economics — Uses for the fruit and lumber are mainly local but widespread +in Tropical Africa. +Energy — The wood is used for firewood. +Biotic factors — Fruits are eaten by antelopes and large forest snails. +290 Handbook of Nuts +VIROLA SEBIFERA Aubl. (MYRISTICACEAE) — Virola Nut, Red Ucuuba +Uses — The seeds are the source of Virola fat, a nutmeg-scented fat which soon becomes +rancid. It is used for making aromatic candles and soaps. Seeds are pierced onto sharp sticks +as candle-nuts. The light, soft, pale-brown wood is easy to work but sap stains badly. It is +considered suitable for boxes, crates, concrete forms, plywood, and cheap interior construc­ +tion. Duke^® notes that some of the economic uses (including narcotic uses) ascribed to this +species may be due to confusion with other species in the taxonomically perplexing genus. +The jungle names ucachuba, ucahuba, ucauba, uchuhuba, ucuiba, and ucuuba are some of +many possible orthographic variants. +Fold medicine — The liniments made from V. sebifera are used in folk remedies for +tumors. Reported to be a fumitory, the virola is a folk remedy for fever.^* Brazilians use +the fat as a poultice and for rheumatism. The kino-like resin is used for aphtha, angina, +caries, and erysipelas. Homeopathically, it is used for abscesses, furuncles, lymphadenitis, +and pyodermy. As a tea, the leaves are used for colic and dyspepsia. +Chemistry — Fatty acids of the nuts contain 5 to 13.3% lauric acid, 66.6 to 73% myristic +acid, 8.9 to 11% palmitic acid, 6.6 to 11% oleic acid, and up to 3.0% linoleic acid.^^^ +Hager’s Handbook*®^ lists N,N-dimethyltryptamine and beta-sitosterol for the husk. Lopes, +Yoshida, and Gottlieb‘S report lignans from this species, (2R, 3S)-3-(3,4-dimethyoxyben- +zyl)-2-(3, 4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-butyrolactone was isolated from the seeds and (2R, 3R)- +3-(3,4-dimethyoxybenzyl)-2-(3, 4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-butyrolactone, (2R, 3R)-2,3-di- +(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)-butyrolactone, and (2R, 3R)-2,3-di-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-bu- +tyrolactone were isolated from the pericarp. +Description — Dioecious, often buttressed trees to 40 m, the younger branchlets per­ +sistently tomentose or glabrescent. Leaf blades glabrous above, with persistent, ochraceous +stalked-stellate hairs below, coriaceous, oblong to elliptic-ovate or obovate, acute to acu­ +minate, cordate, truncate or acute, 10 to 47 cm long, 4 to 15 cm broad; secondary veins 10 +to 28 per side, averaging less than 1/cm along the midrib, the tertiary veins rather prominent +291 +below; petioles canaliculate, 8 to 25 mm long, 2 to 5 mm broad. Staminate flowers in much- +branched panicles; pedicels 0 to 3 mm long; bracts inconspicuous or absent; perianth tardily +3- (to 5-) lobed, 1.3 to 3.0 mm long; anthers 3 (to 5), 0.7 to 1.5 mm long, usually connate +to the apex, the infra-antheral portion of the androecium 0.2 to 1.0 mm long. Pistillate +flowers solitary or clustered in racemes 3 to 7 cm long, 2 to 7 cm broad; pedicels 1 to 4 +mm long; tepals partially connate, with subpinnate ochraceous pubescence; ovary 1-carpel- +late, with a sessile, obscurely 2-lobed stigma. Fruits 10 to 30 per inflorescence, the velutinous +ligneous pericarp ultimately dehiscing longitudinally into 2 valves, subglobose, the aril +laciniate.^® Germination cryptocotylar but epigeal, the eophylls supracotyledonary.^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the South and Central American Centers of Diversity, +virola nut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate waterlogging, but not to the extent that +Virola surinamensis tolerates flooding. +Distribution — Nicaragua to Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru.^^ +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical (Premontane) Wet to Rain through Tropical Moist +to Rain Forest Life Zones, virola nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to +45 dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0. +Cultivation — Rarely, if ever, cultivated. The cryptocotylar seedlings may be moved +from beneath the parent tree. +Harvesting — In Panama, Croat^^ speculates that species flowers twice a year, though +mature fruits are seen nearly all year. The length of fruit maturation period is unknown. +Gordon**^ describes an unusual collecting method in Brazil. The small subspheroid seeds +fall to the forest floor in alluvial forest. When the floods come, the seeds float and go +downstream, with the flood, to be scooped up with hand-nets by women and children. +Yields and economics — In 1942, Gordon,referring to both V. sebifera and V. +surinamensis, notes that 4,0(X) to 5,0(X) tons are harvested per year in Brazil. According to +Markley,^^ in Brazil, “ Production of oil has varied between 650 and 1,600 MT/year, and, +like other soap oils derived from wild plants, production remains static or is declining, +maximum production having occurred in 1941.“ +Energy — Virola candle-nuts are a poor man’s source of energy in many tropical de­ +veloping countries. The trees offer both fire-wood, leaf litter at the rate of ca. 5 MT/ha, +and candle-nuts for energy purposes. +Biotic factors — The wood is subject to pinhole borer injury, if cut logs are allowed to +lie after cutting in the forest.^ Merulius lacrymans is reported on V. merendonis.^^^ +292 +Handbook of Nuts +VIROLA SURINAMENSIS (Rol.) Warb. (MYRISTICACEAE) — Ucahuba Nut, White Ucu- +uba +Uses — Seeds are the source of Ucahuba or Ucuiba Butter, a solid resembling Cacao +butter. The seeds are threaded onto wooden spikes and used as candle-nuts by various +Amerindian groups. The wood, moderately hard, is easily worked. +Folk medicine — Ucahuba is a folk remedy for rheumatism. +Chemistry — The fatty acids of the nut are 0.7% decanoic, 13.0% lauric, 69.7% myristic, +3.0% palmitic, 7.7% oleic, and 5.1% linoleic. Of the saturated fatty acids, 17.6% are C12 +or below, 72.9% are C14, and 4.4% are Cj^, for a total of 94.9%. Of the glycerides, 85% +are trisaturated, 15% are disaturated, and none are monosaturated. Another breakdown shows +0.7% capric-, 16.9% lauric-, 72.9% myristic, 4.4% palmitic, and 5.1% linoleic-acids.*^* +Description — Dioecious tree, to 30 m or more tall and ca. 60 cm dbh, often moderately +buttressed; outer bark coarse, hard, shallowly fissured, reddish-brown; inner bark tan, reddish +on its outer surface; branches often spiraled or clustered, extending nearly horizontally; parts +when young bearing ferruginous, sessile, stellate, pubescence, glabrate in age; sap red, +lacking distinctive odor. Petioles canaliculate, 5 to 10 mm long; leaf blades oblong, acu­ +minate, rounded to acute at base, 9 to 16 cm long, 1.5 to 4.5 cm wide, coriaceous; major +lateral veins in 20 to 30 pairs. All parts of inflorescences densely short-pubescent, the +trichomes mostly stellate; pedicels ca. 1.5 mm long; perianth ca. 2 mm long, 3- or 4-lobed +usually to middle or beyond, the lobes thick, acute to rounded at apex, spreading at anthesis; +staminate flowers in fascicles on panicles to 4 cm long; anthers mostly (2)3(6), connate to +apex. Pistillate flowers in clusters of 3 to many, in racemes to 5 cm long; ovary 1-carpellate, +± ovate; stigma sessile, 2-cleft. Capsules ovoid-ellipsoid, thick-walled, light-orange, 3 to +3.5 cm long, bearing dense, short, stellate pubescence; valves 2, woody, ca. 5 mm thick, +splitting widely at maturity. Seed 1, ellipsoid, ca. 2 cm long, the aril deeply laciniate, red +at maturity (white until just before maturity), fleshy, tasty but becoming bitter after being +chewed.^^ +Germplasm — Reported from the South and Central American Centers of Diversity, +ucahuba nut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate waterlogging. Natives of the Hyalea +distinguish V. surinamensis as “ ucuuba branca” from V. sebifera as “ ucuuba vermelha” .^^^ +But in the market, both are sold as ucuhuba fat. +Distribution — Costa Rica and Panama to the Guianas and Brazil and the lesser Antilles. +Duke^* did not include V. surinamensis in the Flora of Panama. In the Brazilian Hyalea, +the trees grow along river banks. +Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical (Premontane) Moist to Wet through Tropical Moist +to Wet Forest Life Zones, ucahuba nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to +40 dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0.®^ +Cultivation — Not usually cultivated. +Harvesting — In Panama, flowers from June to March (peaking November to February), +maturing fruits from February to August.^^ In the Hyalea of Brazil, the fruits, falling into +the water (February to July), float and are gathered with nets made out of bark.^^^ +Yields and economics — According to information in Mors and Rizzini,^^^ a single tree +yields ca. 25 kg ucuuba fat per year. According to Markley,^°® in Brazil, “ Production of +oil has varied between 650 and 1,600 m tons a year, and, like other soap oils derived from +wild plants, production remains static or is declining, maximum production having occurred +in 1941.“ +Energy — Candlenuts are a poor man’s source of energy in many tropical developing +countries. The trees offer fire-wood, leaf litter at the rate of ca. 5 MT/ha, and candle-nuts +for energy purposes. +Biotic factors — No data available. +293 +R E F E R E N C E S +1. Abarquez, A. H., Pili Management for Resin and Nut Production, Canopy Int., 8(4), 14, 1982. +2. Acosta-Solis, M., Tagua or Vegetable Ivory — A Forest Product of Ecuador, Econ. Bot., 2, 46, 1948. +3. Agaceta, L. M., Dumag, P. U., and Batolos, J. 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F ., The Bigger, the More, Canopy Int., 7(6), 1981. +327. Verbiscar, A. J. and Banigan, T. F., Composition of Jojoba Seeds and Foliage, J. Agrie. Food Chem., +26(6), 1456, 1978. +328. Verma, S. C ., Banerji, R., Misra, G ., and Nigam, S. K., Nutritional Value of Moringa, Curr. Sci., +45(21), 769, 1976. +329. Vietmeyer, N ., American Pistachios, Horticulture, September, 32, 1984. +330. Vogel, V. J., American Indian Medicine, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1970, 583. +331. von Reis, S. and Lipp, Jr., F. J., New Plant Sources for Drugs and Foods from the New York Botanical +Garden Herbarium, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1982, 363. +332. Watt, J. M. and Breyer-Brandwijk, M. G., The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern +Africa, 2nd ed., E. & S. Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1962, 1457. +333. Wei-Chi Lin, An-Chi Chen, and Sang-Gen Hwang, An investigation and study of Chinese Tallow Tree +in Taiwan (Sapium sebiferum Roxb.), Bull. Taiwan Forestry Res. Inst., No. 57, 32, 1958. +334. Westlake, D. F., Comparisons of Plant Productivity, Biol. Rev., 38, 385, 1963. +335. Whitehouse, W. E., The Pistachio Nut — a new crop for the Western United States, Econ. Bot., 11, 281, +1957. +336. Whitehouse, W. E. and Joley, L. E., Notes on the growth of Persian Walnut propagated on rootstocks +of Chinese wingnut, Petrocarya stenoptera, Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci., 52, 103, 1948. +337. Whitehouse, W. E. and Joley, L. E., Notes on culture, growth, and training of pistachio nut trees. Western +Fruit Grower, October, 3, 1951. +338. Whiting, M. G., Toxicity of the Cycads, Econ. Bot., 17(4), 271, 1963. +339. Wiggins, I. L., Flora of Baja California, Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif., 1980, 1025. +340. W illiams, L. O ., Living Telegraph Poles, Econ. Bot., 13, 150, 1959. +341. Woodroof, J. G ., Tree Nuts: Production, Processing, Products, AVI, Westport, Conn., 1967, 356. +342. WuLeung, Woot-Tseun, Butrum, R. R., and Chang, F. H., Part 1, Proximate composition mineral +and vitamin contents of East Asian food, in Food Composition Table for Use in East Asia, Food and +Agriculture Organization and U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1972, 334. +343. Wyman, D., Wyman’s Gardening Encyclopedia, MacMillan, New York, 1974, 1222. +344. Yamazaki, Z. and Tagaya, I., Antiviral Effects of Atropine and Caffeine, J. Gen. Virol., 50(2), 429, +1980. +345. Yanovsky, E. and Kingsbury, R. M., J. Assoc. Off. Agrie. Chem., 21, 648, 1938. +346. Yen, D. E., Arboriculture in the Subsistence of Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands, Econ. Bot., 28, 247, 1974. +347. Yérmanos, D. M., Jojoba — a Brief Survey of the Agronomic Potential, Calif. Agrie., September, 1973. +348. Yérmanos, D. M., Monoecious Jojoba, in New Sources of Fats and Oils, Pryde, E. H ., Princen, L. H., +and Mukherjee, K. D ., Eds., AOCS Monograph No. 9, American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, 111., +1981, 247. +349. Zeven, A. C., The Partial and Complete Domestication of the Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis), Econ. Bot., +26(3), 274, 1972. +350. Zeven, A. C. and Zukovsky, P. M., Dictionary of Cultivated Plants and Their Centres of Diversity, +Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, Netherlands, 1975, 219. +351. Chemical Marketing Reporter, Schnell Publishing Company, New York (often cited herein with date only, +single articles are almost always anonymous in this tabloid). +352. Vilmorin*Andrieux, Mm., The Vegetable Garden; reprinted by The Jeavons-Leler Press, Palo Alto, C alif., +1976, 620. +353. Elliott, D. B., Roots — An Underground Botany and Forager’s Guide, Chatham Press, Old Greenwich, +Conn., 1976, 128. +354. Fernald, M. L ., Kinsey, A. C ., and Rollins, R. C ., Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America, rev. +ed.. Harper & Bros., New York, 1958, 452. +355. Roth, W. B., Cull, I. M., Buchanan, R. A., and Bagby, M. O., Whole Plants as Renewable Energy +Resources: Checklist of 508 Species Analyzed for Hydrocarbon, Oil, Polyphenol, and Protein, Trans. +Illinois Acad. Sci., 75(3,4), 217, 1982. +356. Kalin Arroyo, M. T., Breeding Systems and Pollination Biology in Leguminosae, in Advances in Legume +Systematics, Polhill, R. M. and Raven, P. H ., Eds., 1981, 723. +303 +357. Sadashivaiah, K. N ., Hasheeb, A ., and Parameswar, N. S., Role of different shade tree foliage as +organism manure in cardamom plantation, Res. Bull. Marathwada Agric. Univ., 4(1), 11, 1980. +358. Agrawal, P. K., Rate of Dry Matter Production in Forest Tree Seedlings with Contrasting Patterns of +Growth, Acacia catechu, Butea monosperma, and Buchanania lanzan, Biol. Land Plants Symposium, +Meerut University, 391, 1974. +359. Telek, L. and Martin, F. W., Okra Seed: A Potential Source for Oil and Protein in the Humid Lowland +Tropics, in New Sources of Fats and Oils, Pryde, E. H ., Princen, L. H., and Mukherjee, K. D ., Eds., +AOCS Monograph No. 9, American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, 111., 1981, 37. +360. Duke, J. A., Atchley, A. A., Ackerson, K. T., and Duke, P. K., CRC Handbook of Agricultural Energy +Potential of Developing Countries, 2 vols., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 1987. +361. Anon., Agnc. Res., December, 1978. +362. da Vinha, S. G. and Pereira, R. C ., Producao de Folhedo e sua Sazonalidade em 10 Especies Arborea +Nativas no Sul da Bahia, Revista Theobroma, 13(4), 327, 1983. +363. Pereira, H., Small Contributions for a Dictionary of Useful Plants of the State of Sao Paulo, Rothschild +& Co., Sao Paulo, 1929, 799. +364. Castaneda, R. R., Flora del Centro de Bolivar, Talleres Univ. Nac. de Colombia, Bogata, 1965, 437. +365. Mori, S. A., The Ecology and Uses of the Species of Lecythis in Central America, Turrialba, 20(3), 344, +1970. +366. Eckey, E. W. Vegetable Fats and Oils, Reinhold Publishing, New York, 1954. +367. Buchanan, R. A. and Duke, J. A., Botanochemical Crops, in Handbook of Biosolar Resources, McClure, +T. A. and Lipinsky, E. S., Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 1981, 157. +368. Oke, O. L., Leaf Protein Research in Nigeria, in Leaf Protein Concentrates, Telek, L. and Graham, H. +D ., Eds., AVI, Westport, Conn., 1983, 739. +369. Sadashivaiah, K. N., Haseeb, A., Parameswar, N. S., Role of different shade tree foliage as organic +manure in Cardamom plantation. Res. Bull. Marathwada Agric. Univ., 4(1), 11, 1980. +370. Tsuchiya, T. and Iwaki, H., Biomass and Net Primary Production of a Floating Leaved Plant Trapa natans +Community in Lake Kasumigaura Japan, Jpn. J. Ecol., 33(1), 47, 1983. +371. Duke, J. A ., Herbalbum, An LP album of Herbal Folk Music, Produced by Vip Vipperman and Buddy +Blackmon, Grand Central Studios, Nashville, Tenn., 1986. +372. Devlin, R. M. and Demoranville, 1. E ., Wild Bean Control on Cranberry Bogs with Maleic Hydrazide, +Proc. Northeastern Weed Science Soc., 35, 349, 1981. +373. Sanchez, F. and Duke, J. A., La Papa de Nadi, El Campesino, 115(4), 15, 1984. +374. Walter, W. M., Croom, Jr., E. M., Catignani, G. L., and Thresher, W. C., Compositional Study of +Apios priceana Tubers, J. Ag. Food Chem., January/February, 39, 1986. +375. Reynolds, B., Research Highlights, Apios Tribune, 1(1), 7, 1986. +376. Keyser, H., Personal communication, 1984. +377. Anon., Desert Plant May Replace Sperm Oil, BioScience, 25(7), 467, 1974. +378. Joseph, C. J., Systematic Revision of the Genus Pilocarpus, 1° Lugar — Premio Esso de Ciencia, ca. +1970. +379. Roecklein, J. C. and Leung, P. S ., A Profile of Economic Plants, typescript. College of Tropical +Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, 1986. +380. Stevenson, J. A., The Fungi of Puerto Rico and the American Virgin Islands, Contribution of Reed +Herbarium, Baltimore, No. 23, 743, 1975. +381. Duke, J. A ., Herbalbum: An Anthology of Varicose Verse, J. Medrow, Laurel, Md., 1985. +382. Golden, A. M., USDA, Personal communication, 1984. +383. Price, M., Vegetables from a Tree, ECHO, 8(4), 1, 1985. +384. Ramachandran, C., Peter, K. V., and Gopalakrishnan, P. K., Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) : A +Multipurpose Indian Vegetable, Econ. Bot., 34(3), 276, 1980. +385. Mahajan, S. and Sharma, Y. K., Production of Rayon Grade Pulp from Moringa oleifera, Indian Forester, +386. Grabow, W. O. K., Slabbert, J.L., Morgan, W. S. G., and Jahn, S. A. A., Toxicity and Mutagenicity +Evaluation of Water Coagulated with Moringa oleifera Seed Preparations Using Fish, Protozoan, Bacterial, +Coliphage, Enzyme, and Ames Salmonella Assays, Water S.A., 11(2), 9, 1985. +387. Price, M., The Benzolive Tree, ECHO, 1 1 ,7 , 1986. +388. Iyer, R. I., Nagar, P. K., and Sircar, P. K., Auxins in Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Fruits, Indian +J. Exp. Biol., 19(5), 487, 1981. +389. Girija, V., Sharada, D., and Pushpamma, P., Bioavailability of Thiamine, Riboflavin, and Niacin from +Commonly Consumed Green Leafy Vegetables in the Rural Areas of Andhra Pradesh in India, Int. J. Vitam. +Nutr. Res., 52(1), 9, 1982. +390. Dahot, M. U. and Memon, A. R., Nutritive Significance of Oil Extracted from Moringa oleifera Seeds, +J. Pharm. Univ. Karachi 3(2), 75, 1985. +391. Bhattacharya, S. B., Das, A. K., and Banerji, N., Chemical Investigations on the Gum Exudate from +Sanja Mormga oleifera, Carbohydr. Res., 102(0), 253, 1982. +304 Handbook of Nuts +392. Kareem, A. A., Sadakathulla, S., and Subramaniam, T. R., Note on the Severe Damage of Moringa +Fruits by the Fly Gitona sp., South Indian Hort., 22(1/2), 71, 1974. +393. UHasa, B. A. and Rawal, R. D., Papaver rhoeas and Moringa oleifera, Two New Hosts of Papaya +Powdery Mildew, Curr. Sci., India, 53(14), 754, 1984. +394. Milne-Redhead, E. and Polhill, R. M., Eds., Flora of Tropical East Africa, Crown Agents for Overseas +Governments and Administrations, London (Cucurbitaceae, by C. Jeffrey, 1967), 1968, 156. +395. Edet, E. E., Eka, O. U ., and Ifon, E. T ., Chemical Evaluation of the Nutritive Value of Seeds of African +Breadfruit Treculia africana. Food Chem., 17(1), 41, 1985. +396. Blackmon, W. J. and Reynolds, B. D., The Crop Potential of Apios americana — Preliminary Evaluations, +HortSci., 21(6), in press. +397. Kovoor, A., The Palmyrah Palm; Potential and Perspectives, FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper +52, 77, 1983. +398. Hemsiey, J. H., Sapotaceae, in Flora of Tropical East Africa, Milne-Redhead, E. and Polhill, R. M ., +Eds., 1968, 78. +399. Eggeling, W . J., The Indigenous Trees of the Uganda Protectorate, rev. by I. R. Dale, The Government +Printer, Entebbe, 1951, 491. +400. Duke, J. A., Handbook of Northeastern Indian Medicinal Plants, Quarterman Publications, Lincoln, Mass., +1986, 212. +401. Frey, D., The Hog Peanut, TIPSY, 86, 74, 1986. +402. Marshall, H.H., (Research Station, Morden Manitoba, Canada), correspondence with Noel Vietmeyer, +1977. +403. Duke, J. A., The Case of the Annual “ Perennial” , Org. Card., submitted. +404. Polhill, R. M. and Raven, P. H., Eds., Advances in Legume Systematics, in 2 parts, Vol. 2 of the +Proceedings of the International Legume Conference, Kew, July 24-29, 1978, 1981. +405. Gallaher, R. N. and Buhr, K. L., Plant Nutrient and Forage Quality Analysis of a Wild Legume Collected +from the Highland Rim Area of Middle Tennessee, Crop Sci., 24(6), 1200, 1984. +406. Turner, B. L. and Fearing, O. S., A Taxonomic Study of the Genus Amphicarpaea (Leguminosae), +Southwest. Nat., 9(4), 207, 1964. +407. Dore, W. G., (Ottawa, Ontario, Canada), typescript and correspondence with Noel Vietmeyer, 1978. +408. Foote, B. A., Biology of Rivella pallida Diptera Platystomatidae — a Consumer of the Nitrogen-fixing +Root Nodules of Amphicarpa bracteata Leguminosae, J. Kans. Entomol. Soc., 58(1), 27, 1985. +409. Schnee, B. K. and Waller, D. M., Reproductive Behavior of Amphicarpaea bracteata (Leguminosae), an +Amphicarpic Annual, Am. J. Bot., 73(3), 376, 1986. +410. Serrano, R. G., Current Developments on the Propagation and Utilization of Philippine Rattan, NSTA +Technol. J., 9, 76, 1984. +411. Lapis, A. B., Some Identifying Characters of 12 Rattan Species in the Philippines, Canopy Int., April, 3, +1983. +412. Anon., Big Break for Rattan, Canopy Int., September, 2, 1979. +413. Borja, B., MNR-FORI Rattan Research, Canopy Int., 5(9), 1, 1979. +414. Conelly, W. T., Copal and Rattan Collecting in the Philippines, Econ. Bot., 3(1), 39, 1985. +415. Wong, K. M. and Manokaran, N ., Eds., Proceedings of the Rattan Seminar, Oct. 2-4, 1984, Kuala +Lumpur, Malaysia, The Rattan Information Centre, Forest Research Institute, Kepong, Malaysia, 1985. +416. Garcia, P. R. and Pasig, S. D., Domesticating Rattan Right at Your Backyard, Canopy Int., April, 10, +1983. +417. Monachino, J., Chinese Herbal Medicine — Recent Studies, Econ. Bot., 10, 42, 1956. +418. Dallimore, W. and Jackson, A. B., A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae, 4th ed., rev. by S. G. +Harrison, Edward Arnold, Ltd., London, 1966, 728. +419. Balz, J. P., Conditions for Cultivation of Ginkgo biloba, personal communication, 1981. +420. Wilbur, R. L., The Leguminous Plants of North Carolina, The North Carolina Experiment Station, Agric. +Exp. Station, 1963, 294. +421. D egener, O ., Flora Hawaiiensis or The New Illustrated Flora of the Hawaiian Islands, 1957-1963 (published +by the author). +422. Weber, F. 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R., Selected Weeds of the United States, Agriculture Handbook No. 366, Forest Service, U.S. +Department of Agriculture, Washington, D .C ., 1970, 463. +429. Agan, J. E., Guaraña, Bull. Pan Am. Union, September 268, 1920. +430. Little, E. L., Jr., Important Forest Trees of the United States, Agriculture Handbook No. 519, Forest +Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D .C ., 1978. +431. Bakker, K. and van Steenis, C. G. G. J., Pittosporaceae, in Flora Malesiana, Vol. 5, Rijksherbarium, +Leiden, 1955-1958, 345. +432. Duke, J. A., Survival Manual II: South Viet Nam, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, 1963, 44. +433. Maiden, J. H., The Forest Flora of New South Wales, 2 vols., William Applegate Gullick, Government +Printer, Sydney, 1904. +434. Li, H. L. and Huang, T. C ., Eds., Flora of Taiwan, 6 vols.. Epoch Publishing, Taipei, 1979. +435. Fernandes, R. and Fernandes, A., Anacardiaceae, in Flora Zambesiaca, Vol. 2(2), Exell, A. W ., +Fernandes, A ., and Wild, H., Eds., University Press, Glasgow, 1966, 550. +436. Cribb, A. B. and Cribb, J. W., Useful Wild Plants in Australia, William Collins, Ltd., Sydney, 1981, +269. +437. Petrie, R. W., personal communication, August 6 , 1987. +438. Saul, R., Ghidoni, J. J., Molyneux, R. J., and Elbein, A. D., Castanospermine inhibits alpha-glucosidase +activities and alters glycogen distribution in animals, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. U.S.A., 82, 93, 1985. +439. Snader, K. M., National Cancer Institute, personal communication, July 22, 1987. +440. Threatened Plants Newsletter, No. 17, November 1986. +441. Walker, B. D., Kowalski, M., Gob, W. C., Kozarsky, K., Krieger, M., Rosen, C., Rohrschneider, +L. R., Haseltine, W. A., and Sodrowski, J., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. U.S.A., 84, 8121, 1987. +442. Walker, B. D., Kozarsky, K., Gob, W. C., Rohrschneider, L. R., and Haseltine, W. A., Inti. Conf. +on AIDS, Washington, D .C ., June 15, 1987. +443. Hutchinson, J. and Dalziel, J. M., Flora of West Tropical Africa, Vol. 1, part 2, 2nd ed., revised by +Keay, R. M. J., 1958, 392. + +307 +FIGURE CREDITS +With a master’s degree in botany from the University of North Carolina (1956), comple­ +mented by 30 years of experience as an illustrator, Peggy K. Duke is excellently qualified +to prepare the figures for this handbook. Peggy and I were pleased and amazed at how +generous authors and administrators have been with us, at granting permission to use their +published illustrations. Thanks to these fine people, as well as several U.S. Department of +Agriculture (USDA) public domain publications, and the curators of the collections at the +U.S. National Seed Collection, the National Agricultural Library, and the Smithsonian +Institution Botany Department, we have been able to piece together illustrations for the +majority of genera treated in this book. Our special thanks go to: +P. Kumar P. H. Raven +M. J. Balick +H. L. Li C. F. Reed +H. G. Bedell +E. L. Little +E. A. Bell J. L. Reveal +M. L. Brown P. M. Mazzeo A. Robyns +R. G. Brown S. A. Mori C. G. G. J. Van Steenis +O. Degener W. Mors R. L. Wilbur +E. Forrero G. W. Patterson J. J. Wurdack +H. Garcia-Barriga G. T. Prance +C. R. Gunn T. Plowman +Photographs from the USDA and New York Botanical Gardens collections were consulted +in concert with published photographs and illustrations, especially Menninger’s and Rosen- +garten’s, in the publications cited at the end of this book. Mrs. Duke confirmed and/or +altered details based on seed specimens of the U.S. National Seed Collection, courtesy C. +R. Gunn; and herbarium specimens at the University of Maryland, courtesy J. L. Reveal; +the Botany Department of the Smithsonian Institution, courtesy J. J. Wurdack; and the U.S. +National Arboretum, courtesy P. M. Mazzeo. +F IG U R E C R E D IT L IS T +Credit (with permission) +Scientífíc name +Acrocomia sclerocarpa Peggy Duke +Adhatoda vasica After Little*** +After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & C o., Amsterdam) +Aleurites moluccana +Amphicarpaea bracteata After Wilbur^^« +After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & C o., Amsterdam) +Anacardium occidentale +Apios americana Peggy Duke +Areca catechu Peggy Duke +Arenga pianata Peggy Duke +After Degener*^* +Artocarpus altilis +Peggy Duke +Balanites aegyptiaca +Peggy Duke +Barringtonia procera +Peggy Duke +Bertholletia excelsa +After Weber^^^ (courtesy F. R. Weber and Volunteers in Technical As­ +Borassus flabellifer +sistance (VITA), Rosslyn, Virginia) +Brosimum alicastrum After Descourtilz'*^^ +Bruguiera gymnorrhiza After Little*** +Buchanania lanzan After Kirtikar and Basu*®^ +After Hemsley^’* (reproduced with permission of the Director, Royal Bo­ +Butyrospermum paradoxum +tanic Garden, Kew) +Peggy Duke, after Lapis'*** +Calamus ornatus +308 Handbook of Nuts +FIGURE CREDIT LIST (continued) +Scientific name Credit (with permission) +Canarium indicum After Kirtikar and Basu‘^^ +Carya illinoensis Peggy Duke, after Sargenf*^"^ +Caryocar villosum After Prance and da Silva^^ (courtesy New York Botanical Garden) +Caryodendron orinocense After PIRB^^^ and Garcia-Barriga‘°^ (courtesy Universidad Nacional, Bo­ +gota) +Castanea mollissima Peggy Duke in BedelP^^ +Castanospermum australe Peggy Duke, after Masefield et al.,^^ courtesy Oxford University Press +Ceiba pentandra Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam) +Cocos nucifera After Little and Wadsworth'^^^ and Masefield et al.,^^ courtesy Oxford +University Press +Cola acuminata Peggy Duke +Cordeauxia eduli s Peggy Duke +Corylus americana Peggy Duke in BedelP^^ +Coula edulis After Louis and Leonard'*^^ (redrawn from “ Flore du Congo Belgique et +du Ruanda-Urundi” , Bruxelles, LN.E.A.C. +Cycas rumphii After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & C o., Amsterdam) +After Reed"^^* +Cyperus esculentus +Detarium senegalensis After Weber^^^ (courtesy F. R. Weber and Volunteers in Technical As­ +sistance (VITA), Rosslyn, Virginia) +Elaeis guineensis Peggy Duke, after Masefield et al.,^^ courtesy Oxford University Press +Eleocharis dulcis Peggy Duke +Fagus grandifolia Peggy Duke in BedelP^^ +Ginkgo biloba Peggy Duke in BedelP^^ +Gnetum gnemon After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam) +Helianthus annuus Peggy Duke +Hyphaene thebaica After Webef*^^ (courtesy F. R. Weber and Volunteers in Technical As­ +sistance (VITA), Rosslyn, Virginia) +Inocarpus edulis Peggy Duke +Jatropha curcas After Ochse^^® (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam) +Jessenia bataua After PIRB^^^ (courtesy Universidad Nacional, Bogota) +Juglans nigra Peggy Duke in BedelP^^ +Lecythis ollaria After Prance and Mori^^^ (courtesy New York Botanical Gardens +Licania rigida Peggy Duke +Macadamia spp. Peggy Duke, after Degener^^* +Madhuca longifolia Peggy Duke +After Little and Wadsworth'^^^ +Moringa oleifera +Nelumbo nucifera Peggy Duke, after Reed'^^® +Nypa fruticans Peggy Duke +Orbignya martiana Peggy Duke +Pachira aquatica +After Garcia-Barriga*^^ (courtesy Universidad Nacional, Bogota) +Paullinia cupana +Peggy Duke +Phytelephas macrocarpa +Peggy Duke +Pinus edulis +After Little''^® +Pistacia vera Peggy Duke +Pittosporum resiniferum +After Bakker and van Steenis"^^* (courtesy Flora Malesiana) +Platonia esculenta Peggy Duke +Prunus dulcis After Kirtikar and Basu‘^^ +Quercus súber Peggy Duke +Ricinodendron heudelotii After Eggerling,^^ and Flora of West Tropical Africa!^^ (reproduced with +permission of the Director, Royal Botanic Garden, Kew) (seed of R. +rautaneninii) +Santalum acuminatum Peggy Duke +Sapium se bife rum After Li and Huang'^^'^ (Flora of Taiwan, with permission) +Schleichera oleosa After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam) +Sclerocarya caffra After Fernandes and Femandes'^^^ (reproduced with permission of the Di­ +rector, Royal Botanic Garden, Kew) +309 +FIGURE CREDIT LIST (continued) +Credit (with permission) +Scientific name +Simmondsia chinensis Peggy Duke +After Jeffrey^^'^ (reproduced with permission of the Director, Royal Botanic +Telfairia pedata +Garden, Kew) +Peggy Duke +Terminalia calappa +After Kirtikar and Basu*^^ +Trapa bispinosa +Peggy Duke +Treculia africana +Peggy Duke (after Duke^*) +Virola sebifera + +311 +INDEX +Cyperus rotundus, 142 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Moringa oleifera, 216 +Acacetin, 164 +Acanthaceae, 5— 7, see also specific species Paullinia cupana, 232 +Acetic acid, 97, 158, 222 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 +Achotillo, see Caryocar amygdaliferum Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Acids, see spiecific types Alko, 276 +Acid V, 253 Allantoic acid, 23 +Acid XVIII, 253 Allantoin, 23, 60 +Allegany chinkapin, see Castanea pumila +Acid XX, 253 +Acrocomia aculeata, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa Almendro, see Terminalia calappa +Almond, see Prunus dulcis +Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1— 2 +Acrocomia totai, 3— 4 Bengal, see Terminalia calappa +Adenine, 232 cuddapah, see Buchanania lanzan +Adhatoda vasica, 5— 7 Indian, see Terminalia calappa +Adhatodine, 6 java-, see Canarium indicum +Adji, see Cycas rumphii tropical, see Terminalia calappa +Adotodai, see Adhatoda vasica Almondette, see Buchanania lanzan +African boxwood, see Treculia africana Almond wood, see Coula edulis +African breadfruit, see Treculia africana Aluminum, 44 +Amandin, 250 +African oil palm, see Elaeis guineensis +American beech, see Fagus grandifolia +African walnut, see Coula edulis +Akor, see Cycas rumphii American chestnut, see Castanea dentata +Alanine American filber, see Corylus americana +Artocarpus altilis, 35 American hazelnut, see Corylus americana +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 American oil palm, see Elaeis oleifera +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Amino acids, see also specific types +Fagus sylvatica, 160 Apios americana, 23 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Terminalia calappa, 282 +Jessenia bataua, 181 +Albumens, 53, 175, see also specific types +Albuminoids, 140, 154, see also specific types Moringa oleifera, 215 +Albumins, see also specific types Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Terminalia calappa, 282 Terminalia calappa, 282 +Treculia africana, 287 Aminobutyric acid, 16— 18, 160 +Alcohols, see also specific types Amylase, 285 +Amylopectin, 285 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Apios americana, 23 Amylose, 285 +Borassus flabellifer, 47 Amyrin, 60, 178 +Corylus avellana, 119 Anacardiaceae, 14— 15, 19— 21, 57— 58, 269— 271, +Fagus grandifolia, 158 see also specific species +Ginkgo biloba, 164 Anacardic acid, 19— 21 +Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Andropogon dulce, see Eleocharis dulcis +Paullinia cupana, 232 Anethole, 65 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Anhydrides, 97, see also specific types +Aleurites f ordii, 8 — 11 Animals, see also specific types +Aleurites moluccana, 12— 13 Acrocomia totai, 3 +Aleurites montana, 14— 15 Adhatoda vasica, 1 +Aleurites triloba, see Aleurites moluccana Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 +Alfonsia oleifera, see Elaeis oleifera Carya illinoensis, 72 +Alkaloids, see also specific types Castanospermum australe, 93 +Adhatoda vasica, 5 ,6 Corylus avellana, 121 +Areca catechu, 26 Elaeis guineensis, 151 +Cola acuminata, 108 Fagus sylvatica, 162 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 JTelianthus annuus, 171 +312 Handbook of Nuts +Lecythis minor, 199 Artocarpetin, 37 +Lecythis pisonis, 203 +Artocarpin, 35, 37 +Nypa fruticans, 223 +Artocarpus altilis, 34— 36 +Pinus edulis, 237 Artocarpus communis, see Artocarpus altilis +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37— 39 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 Artocarpus integra, see Artocarpus heterophyllus +Schleichera oleosa, 268 Artostenone, 37 +Telfairia pedata, 280 Ascorbic acid +Treculia africana, 289 Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Anisotinine, 6 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Anthocyanin, see also specific types Areca catechu, 27 +Anthocyanins, 211 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Apigenin, 164 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Apios americana, 22— 25 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Araban, 119 +Bertho llé tia excelsa, 44 +Arabinose, 20, 160, 215, 250 Borassus flabellifer, 47 +Arachic acid, 267 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 +Arachidic acid Calamus rotang, 62 +Carya illinoensis, 69 Cañarium ovatum, 67 +Ceiba pentandra, 97 Carya illinoensis, 69 +Cocos nucifera, 102 +Castanea crenata, 80 +Cyperus esculentus, 140 Castanea mollissima, 85 +Elaeis oleiferi, 152 +Cocos nucifera, 102 +Helianthus annuus, 169 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 +Jatropha curcas, 178 Corylus avellana, 119 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Platonia esculenta, 247 Cyperus rotundus, 142 +Schleichera oleosa, 267 De tar ium senegalense, 145, 146 +Arachidonic acid, 41 Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Arachidylalcohol, 160 Eleocharis dulcis, 154 +Arachinalcohol, 160 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Araginose, 211 Helianthus annuus, 169 +Arbol de Nuez, see Caryodendron orinocense Inocarpus edulis, 175 +Arceaceae, 1— 2, see also specific species Jug Ians regia, 194 +Areaceae, 224, see also specific species Macadamia integrifolia, 207 +Areca, see Areca catechu Madhuca Ion gifo lia, 2 1 1 +Arecaaine, 26 Moringa oleifera, 215 +Areca catechu, 26— 29 Nelumbo nucifera, 219 +Arecaceae, 3—4, 26— 33, 4 7 ^ 9 , 62— 64, 100— Pachira aquatica, 229 +106, 147— 153, 173— 174, 180— 183, 222— +Pistacia vera, 240 +223, 225— 228, 234— 235, see also specific +Prunus dulcis, 250 +species Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Areca-nut, see Areca catechu Terminalia catappa, 282 +Arecolidine, 26 Trapa natans, 285 +Arecoline, 26 Treculia africana, 288 +Arenga pinnata, 30— 33 Ash +Arenga saccharifera, see Arenga pinnata Acrocomia totai, 3, 4 +Arginine Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Apios americana, 23 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Areca catechu, 21 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Arenga pinnata, 31 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Moringa oleifera, 215 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Prunus dulcis, 250 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Sapium sebiferum, 263 Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 +Terminalia catappa, 282 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 +Aristoclesia esculenta, see Platonia esculenta Calamus rotang, 62 +Antacarpanone, 37 Cañar ium indicum, 65 +313 +Cañarium ovatum, 67 Anacardium occidentale, 21 +Carya illinoensis, 69 Areca catechu, 29 +Castanea crenata, 80 Cocos nucífera, 105— 106 +Castanea dentata, 82 Corylus avellana, 122 +Castanea mollissima, 85 Corylus colurna, 125 +Corylus maxima, 130 +Castanea sativa, 90 +Ceiba pentandra, 97 Fagus sylvatica, 162 +Helianthus annuus, 172 +Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 +Cola acuminata, 107, 108 Juglans ailanthifoda, 185 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Juglans hindsii, 189 +Corylus americana, 116 Juglans regia, 19 +Corylus avellana, 119 Nelumbo nucífera, 221 +Coula edulis, 131 Bacuri, see Platonia esculenta +Cyperus esculentus, 140 Bacury, see Platonia esculenta +Cy perU S rotundus, 142 Badam, see Terminada catappa +Detarium senegalense, 145 Balanites aegyptiaca, 40— 42 +Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Balanitestin, 41 +Fagus grandifolia, 158 Balsam, see Balanites aegyptiaca +Barcelona nut, see Corylus avellana +Ginkgo biloba, 164 +G ne turn gnemon, 166 Barium, 44 +Helianthus annuus, 169 Barringtonia procera, 43 +Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Basak, see Adhatoda vasica +Inocarpus edulis, 175 Basseol, 60, see also Madhuca longifoda +Jatropha curcas, 178 Bats +Juglans cinerea, 186 Cañar ium indicum, 6 6 +Juglans nigra, 191 Caryocar amygdadferum, 73 +Juglans regia, 194 Caryocar villosum, 11 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Ceiba pentandra, 99 +Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Lecythis minor, 199 +Orbignya martiana, 226 Lecythis pisonis, 203 +Pachira aquatica, 229 Bayin, 93 +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Bayogenin, 93 +Pinus edulis, 236 Beaked filbert, see Corylus cornuta +Pistacia vera, 240 Beech, see Fagus grandifolia; Fagus sylvatica +Prunus dulcis, 250 Bees +Quercus súber, 253 Aleurites f ordii, 10 +Apios americana, 25 +Santalum acuminatum, 260 +Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Ceiba pentandra, 99 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Cyperus esculentus, 141 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Elaeis oleifera, 153 +Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 Helianthus annuus, 171 +Terminada catappa, 282 Lecythis minor, 199 +Trapa natans, 285 Lecythis pisonis, 203 +Treculia africana, 287, 288 Pauldnia cupana, 233 +Asparagine, 23, 114, 160, 164 Sapium sebiferum, 265 +Aspartic acid Terminada catappa, 283 +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +Beetles, see Insects +Sap ium sebiferum, 263 Behenic acid, 135, 169, 207, 215 +Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Belgium walnut, see Aleurites moluccana +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Bengal almond, see Terminada catappa +Terminada catappa, 282 Benzaldehyde, 250, 267 +Benzolive tree, see Moringa oleifera +Asteraceae, 168— 172, see also specific species +Attalea cohune, see Orbignya cohune Bergapten, 41 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44— 46 +Australian nut, see Macadamia integrifoda +Azaleatin, 69 Betaine +Adhatoda vasica, 6 +Cola acuminata, 108 +B +Cola nitida, 110 +Babassu, see Orbignya martiana Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Bacteria Madhuca longifoda, 211 +Aleurites f ordii, 10— 11 Betel-nut palm, see Areca catechu +314 Handbook of Nuts +Betulaceae, 116— 130, see also specific species +Cyperus rotundus, 143— 144 +Betulin, 119, 160, 253 +Detarium senegalense, 146 +Betulinic acid, 253 +Elaeis guineensis, 151 +Betulinol, 119 Elaeis oleifera, 153 +Bilobol, 164 Eleocharis dulcis, 156 +Biotic factors, see also specific types Fagus grandifolia, 159 +Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fa g US Sylva tica, 161— 162 +Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165 +Adhatoda vasica, 1 Gnetum gnemon, 167 +Aleurites fordii, 10— 11 +Helianthus annuus, 171— 172 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Aleurites montana, 15 +Inocarpus edulis, 176 +Amphicarpaea hracteata, 18 +Jatropha curcas, 179 +Anacardium occidentale, 21 +Jessenia bataua, 182 +Apios americana, 25 +Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 +Areca catechu, 29 +Juglans cinerea, 187— 188 +Arenga pianata, 33 Juglans hindsii, 189 +Artocarpus altilis, 36 Juglans nigra, 193 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38— 39 Juglans regia, 196— 197 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 Lecythis minor, 199 +Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201 +Bertholletia excelsa, 46 Lecythis pi soni s, 203 +Borassus flahellifer, 49 Licania rigida, 206 +Bosimum alicastrum, 52 Mac adamia inte gr ifo lia, 209 +Brosimum utile, 54 Madhuca longifolia, 213 +Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 217 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucifera, 221 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 Nypa fruticans, 223 +Calamus rotang, 64 +Orbignya cohune, 224 +Canarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 228 +Canarium ovatum, 6 8 Fachiro aquatica, 230 +Carya illinoensis, 12 Paullinia cupana, 233 +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 237 +Caryocar villosum, 11 P inus quadrifolia, 239 +Caryodendron orinocense, 79 Pistacia vera, 243 +Castanea crenata, 81 Pittosporum resinferum, 246 +Castanea dentata, 84 Platonia esculenta, 248 +Castanea mollissima, 87 Prunus dulcis, 252 +Castanea pumila, 89 Quercus súber, 255 +Castanea sativa, 92 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 251 +Castanospermum australe, 95 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 +Ceiba pentandra, 99 Santalum acuminatum, 261 +Cocos nucifera, 105— 106 Sapium sebiferum, 265 +Cola acuminata, 109 Schleichera oleosa, 268 +Cola nitida, 111— 112 Sclerocarya coffra, 211 +Cola verticillata, 113 Simmondsia chinensis, 215 +Cordeauxia edulis, 115 Telfairia occidentalis, 211 +Corylus americana, 118 Telfairia pedata, 280 +Corylus avellana, 121— 122 Terminano catappa, 283 +Corylus chinensis, 123 Trapa notons, 286 +Corylus colurna, 125 Treculia africana, 289 +Corylus cornuta, 127 Virola sebifera, 291 +Corylus ferox, 128 Virola surinamensis, 292 +Biotin, 211 +Corylus heterophylla, 129 +Birds +Corylus maxima, 130 +Acrocomia totai, 3 +Coula edulis, 132 +Corylus avellana, 121 +Cycas circinalis, 134 +Elaeis guineensis, 151 +Cycas revoluta, 136 +Cycas rumphii, 138 Helianthus annuum, 172 +Cyperus esculentus, 141 Sapium sebiferum, 265 +315 +Schleichera oleosa, 268 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 +Terminalia catappa, 283 Calamus rotang, 62 +Black bean tree, see Castanospermum australe Canarium ovatum, 67 +Black sugar palm, see Arenga pinnata Carya illinoensis, 69 +Black walnut, see Juglans hindsii; Juglans nigra Castanea crenata, 80 +Bombacaceae, 96— 99, 229— 230, see also specific Castanea mollissima, 85 +species Castanea sativa, 90 +Bomhax pentandrum, see Ceiba pentandra Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Borassus aethiopum, see Borassus /labellifer Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 +Borassus flabellifer, 47— 49 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 +Borassus flabelliformis, see Borassus flabellifer Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Bosimum alicastrum, 50— 52 Cory lus avellana, 119 +Boxwood, African, see Treculia africana Coula edulis, 131 +Brab tree, see Borassus flabellifer Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Cyperus rotundus, 142 +Brazilian cocoa, see Paullinia cupana +Brazil nut, see Bertholletia excelsa Detarium senegalense, 145 +Breadfruit, see Artocarpus altilis; Treculia africana Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Breadnut, see Bosimum alicastrum Eleocharis dulcis, 154 +Brevifolin carboxylic acid, 282 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Bromine, 44 Helianthus annuus, 169 +Brosimum galactodendron, see Brosimum utile Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Brosimum utile, 53— 54 Juglans nigra, 191 +Bruguiera conjugata, see Bruguiera gymnorhiza Juglans regia, 194 +Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55— 56 Macadamia integrifolia, 207 +Buchanania lanzan, 57— 58 Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 +Buchanania latifolia, see Buchanania lanzan Moringa oleifera, 215 +Burma mangrove, see Bruguiera gymnorhiza Nelumbo nucífera, 219 +Burseraceae, 65— 68, see also specific species Pistacia vera, 240, 241 +Butternut, see Caryocar nuciferum; Juglans cinerea Prunus dulcis, 250 +Butterseed, see Butyrospermum paradoxum Santalum acuminatum, 260 +Butyric acid, 47, 267 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59— 61 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 +Butyrospermum parkii, see Butyrospermum Telfairia pedata, 21S +paradoxum Terminalia catappa, 282 +Buxaceae, 272— 275, see also specific species Treculia africana, 287, 288 +Calcium pantothenase, 258 +California walnut, see Juglans hindsii +Calories +Cacay, see Caryodendron orinocense Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Cadmium, 44 Areca catechu, 27 +Caesalpiniaceae, 114— 115, 145— 146, see also Arenga pinnata, 31 +specific species Artocarpus altilis, 34 +Caffeic acid, 97, 160, 194 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Caffeine, 108, 110, 113, 232 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Caffir marvola nut, see Sclerocarya caffra Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Borassus flabellifer, 47 +Cagui, see Caryocar amygdaliferum +Calamus rotang, 62— 64 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 +Calcium Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 +Acrocomia total, 3, 4 Calamus rotang, 62 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Canarium ovatum, 67 +Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Carya illinoensis, 69 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Castanea crenata, 80 +Areca catechu, 27 Castanea mollissima, 85 +Arenga pinnata, 31 Castanea sativa, 90 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Cocos nucífera, 101 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Borassus flabellifer, 47 Corylus americana, 116 +Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Corylus avellana, 119 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 Coula edulis, 131 +316 Handbook of Nuts +Cyperus esculentus, 140 Canarium ovatum, 67 +Cyperus rotundus, 142 Carya illinoensis, 69 +Detarium senegalense, 145 Castanea crenata, 80 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Castanea dentata, 82 +Eleocharis dulcís, 154 +Castanea mollissima, 85 +Fagus grandifolia, 158 +Castanea sativa, 90 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Helianthus annuus, 169 +Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 +Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 +Inocarpus edulis, 175 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Juglans cinerea, 186 Corylus americana, 116 +Jug Ians nigra, 191 Corylus avellana, 119 +Juglans regia, 194 Coula edulis, 131 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Cyperus rotundus, 142 +Pachira aquatica, 229 Detarium senegalense, 145 +Pinus edulis, 236 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Pistacia vera, 240, 241 +Eleocharis dulcís, 154 +Prunus dulcís, 250 +Fagus grandifolia, 158 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Gnetum gnemon, 166 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Helianthus annuus, 169 +Terminaba catappa, 282 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Trapa natans, 285 Inocarpus edulis, 175 +Treculia africana, 287 Jatropha curcas, 178 +Caltrops, see Trapa natans Juglans cinerea, 186 +Campesterol, 178 Juglans nigra, 191 +Camphorol, 35, 97 Juglans regia, 194 +Canarium amboinense, see Canarium indicum +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 +Canarium commune, see Canarium indicum Madhuca longifolia, 211 +Canarium grandistipulatum, see Canarium indicum +Moringa oleifera, 215 +Canarium indicum, 65— 66 +Nelumbo nucífera, 219 +Canarium mehenbethene, see Canarium indicum +Nypa fruticans, 222 +Canarium moluccanum, see Canarium indicum Orbignya martiana, 226 +Canarium nungi, see Canarium indicum Pachira aquatica, 229 +Canarium ovatum, 67— 68 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 +Canarium polyphyllum, see Canarium indicum Pinus edulis, 236 +Canarium shortlandicum, see Canarium indicum Pistacia vera, 240, 241 +Canarium subtruncatum, see Canarium indicum Prunus dulcís, 250 +Candleberry, see Aleurites moluccana Santalum acuminatum, 260 +Candlenut oil tree, see Aleurites moluccana Schleichera oleosa, 267 +Canes, see Calamus rotang Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Caoutchouc, 37, 212 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Capomo, see Bosimum alicastrum Telfairia occidentalis, 276 +Capric acid, 69, 102, 263, 292 Terminaba catappa, 282 +Caproic acid, 102 Trapa natans, 285 +Caprylic acid, 102, 164, 263 Trecuba africana, 287, 288 +Carbohydrates, see also specific types Cardol, 20 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Carotene +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Acr acomia scier ocarpa, 1 +Apios americana, 23 Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Areca catechu, 26, 27 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Arenga pinnata, 31 Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 +Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48 +Canarium ovatum, 67 +Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 +Carya illinoensis, 69 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 +Castanea mollissima, 85 +Calamus rotang, 62 Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 +317 +Corylus avellana, 119 +Cola acuminata, 107, 108 +Corylus avellana, 119 Orbignya martiana, 225 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 Quercus súber, 253 +Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Cerin, 253 +Helianthus annuus, 169 Cerium, 44 +Juglans regia, 194 Ceroids, 253, see also specific types +Macadamia inte gr if olia, 207 Cerotic acid, 35, 37 +Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Cerotonic acid, 160 +Moringa oleifera, 215 Ceryl alcohol, 164 +Cesium, 44 +Nelumbo nucífera, 219 +Ceylon oak, see Schleichera oleosa +Pachila aquatica, 229 +Pistacia vera, 240 Chalmagra, see Caryocar amygdaliferum +Prunus dulcís, 250 Charcoal, 97 +Treculia africana, 288 Chemicals, see specific types +Carpathian walnut, see Juglans regia Cheronjee, see Buchanania lanzan +Carumhium sehiferum, see Sapium sehiferum Chestnut +Carya illinoensis, 69— 71 American, see Castanea dentata +Carya oliviformis, see Carya illinoensis Chinese hairy, see Castanea mollissima +Carya pecan, see Carya illinoensis Chinese water, see Eleocharis dulcís +European, see Castanea sativa +Caryatin, 69 +Italian, see Castanea sativa +Caryocaraceae, 73— 77, see also specific species +Cary ocar amygdaliferum, 73 Japanese, see Castanea crenata +Caryocar brasiliense, see Caryocar villosum Malabar, see Pachira aquatica +Caryocar coriaceum, see Caryocar villosum Moretón Bay, see Castanospermum australe +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Otaheite, see I nocarpus edulis +Caryocar villosum, 75— 77 Polynesia, see Inocarpus edulis +Caryodendron orinocense, 78— 79 Spanish, see Castanea sativa +Caryopitys edulis, see Pinus edulis sweet, see Castanea dentata; Castanea sativa +Cashew, see Anacardium occidentale Tahiti, see Inocarpus edulis +water, see Eleocharis dulcís; Trapa natans +Castañas, see Bertholletia excelsa +Castanea americana, see Castanea dentata Chinese filbert, see Corylus chinensis +Castanea bungeana, see Castanea mollissima Chinese hairy chestnut, see Castanea mollissima +Castanea castanea, see Castanea sativa Chinese tallow tree, see Sapium sebiferum +Castanea crenata, 80— 81 Chinese water chestnut, see Eleocharis dulcís +Castanea dentata, 82— 84 Chinkapin, Allegany, see Castanea pumila +Castanea formosana, see Castanea mollissima Chinquapin, see Castanea pumila +Chirauli nut, see Buchanania lanzan +Castanea japónica, see Castanea crenata +Castanea mollissima, 85— 87 Chironjii, see Buchanania lanzan +Castanea pubinervis, see Castanea crenata Chlorine, 194 +Castanea pumila, 88— 89 Chloroform, 191 +Castanea sativa, 90— 92, see also Castanea Chlorogenic acid, 160 +mollissima Choline, 102, 160, 232 +Castanea stricta, see Castanea crenata Chromium, 250, 288 +Castanea vesca, see Castanea sativa Chufa, see Cyperus esculentus +Castanea vulgaris, see Castanea sativa Cica, see Cycas circinalis +Castanhado para, see Bertholletia excelsa Cineole, 142 +Castanospermum australe, 93— 95 Cistine, 263 +Catechin Citric acid, 160, 270 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Clusiaceae, 247— 248, see also specific species +Carya illinoensis, 69 Cnarotee, 164 +Cola acuminata, 108 Cobalt, 44, 194 +Cola nitida, 110 Cobnut, see Corylus avellana +Cocoa, Brazilian, see Paullinia cupana +Nelumbo nucífera, 219 +Coco de Catarro, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa +Paullinia cupana, 232 +Terminaba catappa, 282 Coco de mono, see Lecythis minor +Coconut, see Borassus flabellifer; Cocos nucífera +Catechutannic acid, 232 +Coco-palm, see Acrocomia total +Ceiba pentandra, 96— 99 +Cocos nucífera, 100— 106 +Cellulose +Cohune palm, see Orbignya cohune +Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Cola, see Cola acuminata; Cola verticillata +Cola acuminata, 108 +Cola nitida, 110 Cola acuminata, 107— 109 +318 Handbook of Nuts +Cola johnsonii, see Cola verticillata Bertholletia excelsa, 45 +Colalipase, 110 Borassus flabellifer, 48 +Cola nitida, 110— 112 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +Colaoxydase, 110 Brosimum utile, 53 +Cola verticillata, 113 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 +Combretaceae, 281— 283, see also specific species Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Concavalin A, 37 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 +Constantinople nut, see Corylus colurna +Calamus rotang, 63 +Copper +Canarium indicum, 6 6 +Amphicarpaea hracteata, 17 Canarium ovatum, 67 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Carya illinoensis, 70— 71 +Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 +Moringa oleifera, 215 Caryocar nuciferum, 74 +Pistacia vera, 241 Caryocar villosum, 11 +Santalum acuminatum, 260 Caryodendron orinocense, 78 +Trapa natans, 285 Castanea crenata, 80— 81 +Treculia africana, 288 +Castanea dentata, 83 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114— 115 +Castanea mollissima, 8 6 , 87 +Cordeauxione, 114 Castanea pumila, 89 +Corilagin, 282 Castanea sativa, 91— 92 +Cork oak, see Quercus súber Castanospermum australe, 94 +Corozo, see Elaeis oleifera Ceiba pentandra, 98 +Corozo oleifera, see Elaeis oleifera Cocos nucífera, 103— 104 +Corylin, 119 Cola acuminata, 109 +Corylus americana, 116— 118 +Cola nitida, 111 +Corylus avellana, 119— 122 Cola verticillata, 113 +Corylus chinensis, 123 +Cordeauxia edulis, 115 +Corylus colurna, 124— 125, see also Corylus Corylus americana, 117 +chinensis Corylus avellana, 120— 121 +Corylus cornuta, 126— 127 Corylus chinensis, 123 +Corylus ferox, 128, see also Corylus ferox Corylus colurna, 124— 125 +Corylus heterophylla, 129 Corylus cornuta, 126— 127 +Corylus maxima, 130 Corylus ferox, 128 +Corylus rostrata, see Corylus cornuta Corylus heterophylla, 129 +Corylus tihetica, see Corylus ferox +Corylus maxima, 130 +Corylus tubulosa, see Corylus maxima +Coula edulis, 132 +Coula edulis, 131— 132 Cycas circinalis, 134 +/7-Coumaric acid, 160, 194 Cycas revoluta, 135 +Cow tree, see Brosimum utile Cycas rumphii, 138 +Creme nut, see Bertholletia excelsa Cyperus esculentus, 141 +Croton moluccanus, see Aleurites moluccana Cyperus rotundas, 143 +Croton sebiferus, see Sapium sebiferum Detarium senegalense, 146 +Crozier cycas, see Cycas circinalis Elaeis guineensis, 149— 150 +Cucurbitaceae, 276— 280, see also specific species Elaeis oleifera, 153 +Cuddapah almond, see Buchanania lanzan Eleocharis dulcis, 155 +Cultivation Fagus grandifolia, 159 +Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fagus sylvatica, 161 +Acrocomia total, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165 +Adhatoda vasica, 6 — 7 Gnetum gnemon, 167 +Aleurites f ordii, 9— 10 +Helianthus annuus, 170 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Aleurites montana, 14— 15 I nocarpus edulis, 176 +Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 Jatropha curcas, 179 +Anacardium occidentale, 20— 21 Jessenia bataua, 182 +Apios americana, 24 +Juglans ailantbifolia, 185 +Areca catechu, 28 Juglans cinerea, 187 +Arenga pinnata, 31— 32 +Juglans hindsii, 189 +Artocarpus altilis, 36 +Juglans nigra, 192 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 +Juglans regia, 195— 196 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 +Lecythis minor, 199 +Barringtonia procera, 43 +Lecythis ollaria, 2 0 1 +319 +Lecythis pisonis, 203 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 +Licania rigida, 205 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Macadamia integrifolia, 208— 209 +Prunus dulcis, 250 +Madhuca longifolia, 212 +Moringa oleifera, 216 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Nelumbo nucífera, 220 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Nypa fruticans, 223 Terminaba catappa, 282 +Orhignya cohune, 224 Cytotoxic acid, 219 +Orhignya martiana, 221 +Pachira aquatica, 230 +D +Paullinia cupana, 233 +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 Date, desert, see Balanites aegyptiaca +Decadienoic acid, 263 +Pinus edulis, 237 +Decanoic acid, 292 +Pinus quadrifolia, 238 +Pistacia vera, 242 Deoxyribonucleic acid, 164 +Pittosporum resinferum, 245 Deoxyvasicine, 6 +Platonia esculenta, 248 Desert date, see Balanites aegyptiaca +Prunus dulcís, 251 Detaric acid, 145 +Quercus súber, 254 Detarium heudelotianum, see Detarium senegalense +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Detarium senegalense, 145— 146 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 Dextrin, 51 +Dextrose, 285 +Santalum acuminatum, 261 +Sapium sebiferum, 264 Diapalmitostearin, 148 +Dihydroterpene, 244 +Schleichera oleosa, 267— 268 +Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 3,4-Dihydroxy benzoic acid, 69 +Dimethyltryptamine, 290 +Simmondsia chinensis, 274 +Telfairia occidentalis, 211 Dioleopalmitin, 58 +Telfairia pedata, 279— 280 Diosgenin, 41 +Terminaba catappa, 283 Dipalmitolein, 58 +Trapa natans, 286 Dipalmitostearins, 2 11 +Treculia africana, 289 Diseases, see also specific types +Virola sebifera, 291 Acrocomia total, 3 +Virola surinamensis, 292 Aleurites f ordii, 10— 11 +Curcasin, 178 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 +Anacardium occidentale, 21 +Curcin, 178 +Cyanadin, 194 Apios americana, 25 +Cyanomachurin, 37 Areca catechu, 29 +Cyanomaclurin, 37 Arenga pinnata, 33 +Cyasin, 135 Borassus flabelbfer, 49 +Cycadaceae, 133— 138, see also specific species Brosimum utile, 54 +Cycad nut, see Cycas circinalis; Cycas revoluta Cañarium ovatum, 6 8 +Cycas, see Cycas circinalis Carya ilbnoensis, 12 +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 +Cycas circinalis, 133— 134 +Castanea dentata, 84 +Cycasin, 135 +Cycas revoluta, 135— 136 Castanea mollissima, 87 +Cycas rumphii, 137— 138 Castanea pumila, 89 +Cyclitol, 253 Castanea sativa, 92 +Cycloartocarpin 37 Cocos nucífera, 106 +Cyclopropenoid acids, 229 Corylus americana, 118 +Cyperaceae, 139— 144, 154— 156, see also specific Corylus avellana, 122 +aspects; specific species Corylus chinensis, 123 +Cyperene-1, 142 Cyperus rotundus, 143— 144 +Cyperene-2, 142 Elaeis guineensis, 151 +Cyperenone, 142 Elaeis oleifera, 153 +Cyperone, 142 Fagus grandifoba, 159 +Cyperus esculentus, 139— 141 Fagus sylvatica, 161— 162 +Cyperus rotundus, 142— 144 Ginkgo biloba, 165 +Cystathionine, 200 Helianthus annuus, 172 +Cysteine, 114, 273 Jatropha curcas, 179 +Cystine Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Juglans cinerea, 187— 188 +320 Handbook of Nuts +Juglans hindsii, 189 +Castanea mollissima, 8 6 +Juglans nigra, 193 Castanea pumi la, 89 +Lecythis ollaria, 201 +Castanea sativa, 91 +Macadamia integrifolia, 209 +Castanospermum australe, 94 +Madhuca longifolia, 213 +Ceiba pentandra, 98 +Moringa oleifera, 217 +Cocos nucífera, 102— 103 +Nelumbo nucífera, 221 +Cola acuminata, 109 +Orhignya cohune, 224 +Cola nitida, 1 10 +Paullinia cupana, 233 Cola verticillata, 113 +Pinus edulis, 237 Cordeauxia edulis, 115 +Pistacia vera, 243 Corylus americana, 117 +Platonia esculenta, 248 +Corylus avellana, 120 +Prunus du le is, 252 +Corylus chinensis, 123 +Quercus suher, 255 +Corylus colurna, 124 +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +Corylus cornuta, 126 +Schleicher a oleosa, 268 +Corylus ferox, 128 +Sclerocarya caffra, 271 +Corylus heterophylla, 129 +Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Corylus maxima, 130 +Telfairia occidentalis, 211 +Coula edulis, 132 +Telfairia pedata, 280 +Cycas circinalis, 134 +Trapa natans, 286 Cycas revoluta, 135 +Distribution, see Geographical distribution Cycas rumphii, 138 +Docosanol, 160 Cyp e rus esculentus, 140— 141 +Doum palm, see Hyphaene thebaica Cyperus rotundus, 143 +Drumstick tree, see Moringa oleifera Detarium senegalense, 146 +Elaeis guineensis, 149 +Elaeis oleifera, 152— 153 +Eleocharis dulcís, 155 +Eastern black walnut, see Juglans nigra +Fagus grandifolia, 158— 159 +Ecology +Fagus sylvatica, 161 +Acrocomia scleracarpa, 1— 2 +Ginkgo biloba, 164— 165 +Acrocomia total, 3 +Gnetum gnemon, 167 +Adhatoda vasica, 6 +Helianthus annuus, 170 +Ale uri tes fardi i, 8 — 9 +Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 I nocarpus edulis, 176 +Aleurites montana, 14 +Jatropha curcas, 178— 179 +Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17— 18 Jesse nia bataua, 181 +Apios americana, 24 Juglans allant bifolia, 184, 185 +Areca catechu, 21 Juglans cinerea, 187 +Arenga pinnata, 31 Juglans hindsii, 189 +Artocarpus altilis, 35— 36 Juglans nigra, 191 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Juglans regia, 195 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Lecythis minor, 199 +Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201 +Bertholletia excelsa, 45 Lecythis pisonis, 203 +Borassus flabellifer, 48 Licania rigida, 205 +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Macadamia integrifolia, 208 +Brosimum utile, 53 Madhuca longifolia, 212 +Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucífera, 220 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Nypa fruticans, 223 +Calamus rotang, 63 +Orbignya cohune, 224 +Canarium indicum, 6 6 +Orbignya martiana, 227 +Cañarium ovatum, 67 +Pachira aquatica, 230 +Carya illinoensis, 70 +Paullinia cupana, 232— 233 +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 +Pinus edulis, 237 +Caryocar villosum, 11 +Pinus quadrifolia, 238 +Caryodendron orinocense, 78 +Pistacia vera, 241— 242 +Castanea crenata, 80 +Pittosporum resinferum, 245 +Castanea dentata, 83 +Platonia esculenta, 248 +321 +Prunas dulcís, 250— 251 +Corylus colurna, 125 +Quercus súber, 254 +Corylus cornuta, 127 +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Corylus ferox, 128 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Corylus heterophylia, 129 +Santalum acuminatum, 261 Corylus maxima, 130 +Sapium sebiferum, 263 Coula edulis, 132 +Sclerocarya caffra, 271 Cycas circinalis, 134 +Simmondsia chinensis, 21A Cycas revoluta, 136 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276— 277 Cycas rumphii, 138 +Telfairia pedata, 279 +Cyperus esculentus, 141 +Terminaba catappa, 283 +Cyperus rotundas, 143 +Trapa natans, 285— 286 +Detarium senegalense, 146 +Treculia africana, 289 +Elaeis guineensis, 150 +Virola sebifera, 291 +Elaeis oleifera, 153 +Virola surinamensis, 292 +Eleocharis dulcís, 155 +Economics Fagus grandifolia, 159 +Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fagus sylvatica, 161 +Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165 +Adhatoda vasica, 1 Gnetum gnemon, 167 +Aleurites fordii, 10 Helianthus annuus, 170— 171 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Aleurites montana, 15 1 nocarpus edulis, 176 +Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 Jatropha curcas, 179 +Anacardium occidentale, 21 Jessenia bataua, 182 +Apios americana, 25 Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 +Areca catechu, 28— 29 Juglans cinerea, 187 +Arenga pinnata, 32 +Juglans hindsii, 189 +Artocarpus altilis, 36 +Juglans nigra, 192— 193 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Juglans regia, 196 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 Lecythis minor, 199 +Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201 +Bertholletia excelsa, 45 Lecythis pisonis, 203 +Borassus flabellifer, 49 Licania rigida, 206 +Bosimum alicastrum, 52 Macadamia integrifolia, 209 +Brosimum utile, 54 Madhuca longifolia, 213 +Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucífera, 221 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 Nypa fruticans, 223 +Calamus rotang, 63— 64 Orbignya cohune, 224 +Canarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 227 +Canarium ovatum, 6 8 P achira aquatica, 230 +Carya illinoensis, 1 1 +Paullinia cupana, 233 +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 237 +Caryocar villosum, 77 +Pinus quadrifolia, 238 +Caryodendron orinocense, 79 Pistacia vera, 242 +Castanea crenata, 81 +Pittosporum resinferum, 245 +Castanea dentata, 84 Platonia esculenta, 248 +Castanea mollissima, 87 Prunus dulcís, 251 +Castanea pumila, 89 Quercus súber, 255 +Castanea sativa, 92 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +Castanospermum australe, 94— 95 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 +Ceiba pentandra, 99 Santalum acuminatum, 261 +Cocos nucífera, 105 Sapium sebiferum, 264 +Cola acuminata, 109 Schleichera oleosa, 268 +Cola nitida, 111 Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 +Cola verticillata, 113 Simmondsia chinensis, 21A— 275 +Cordeauxia edulis, 115 Telfairia occidentalis, 211 +Corylus americana, 118 Telfairia pedata, 280 +Corylus avellana, 121 Terminaba catappa, 283 +Corylus chinensis, 123 Trapa natans, 286 +322 Handbook of Nuts +Treculia africana, 289 Cola verticillata, 113 +Virola schiferà, 291 Cordeauxia edulis, \\5 +Virola surinamensis, 292 Corylus americana, 118 +Eicosenoic acid, 169 207 Corylus avellana, 121 +/z-Eicosylalcohol, 160 Corylus chinensis, 123 +Elaeis guineensis, 147— 151 Corylus colurna, 125 +Elaeis melanococca, see Elaeis guineensis; Elaeis Corylus cornuta, 127 +oleifera Corylus ferox, 128 +Elaeis oleifera, 152— 153 Corylus heterophylla, 129 +Eleocharis dulcís, 154— 156 Corylus maxima, 130 +Eleocharis plantaginea, see Eleocharis dulcis +Coula edulis, 132 +Eleocharis tuberosa, see Eleocharis dulcis +Cycas circinalis, 134 +Eleostearic acid +Cycas revoluta, 136 +Aleurites fordii, 8 Cycas rumphii, 138 +Aleurites montana, 14 Cyperus esculentus, 141 +Licania rigida, 204 Cyperus rotundus, 143 +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Detarium senegalense, 146 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Elaeis guineensis, 150— 151 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Elaeis oleifera, 153 +Ellagic acid, 263, 282 Eleocharis dulcis, 155— 156 +Energy Fagus grandifolia, 159 +Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fagus sylvatica, 161 +Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165 +Adhatoda vasica, 1 Gnetum gnemon, 167 +Aleurites fordii, 10 Helianthus annuus, 171 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Aleurites montana, 15 +Inocarpus edulis, 176 +Amphicarpaea hracteata, 18 Jatropha curcas, 179 +Anacardium occidentale, 21 Jessenia hataua, 182 +Apios americana, 25 Juglans ailantbifolia, 185 +Areca catechu, 29 Juglans cinerea, 187 +Arenga pinnata, 33 Juglans hindsii, 189 +Artocarpus altilis, 36 Juglans nigra, 193 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Juglans regia, 196 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 Lecythis minor, 199 +Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201 +Bertholletia excelsa, 46 Lecythis pisonis, 203 +Borassus flabellifer, 49 Licania rigida, 206 +Bosimum alicastrum, 52 Macadamia integrifolia, 209 +Brosimum utile, 54 Madhuca longifolia, 213 +Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216— 217 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucifera, 221 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 Nypa fruticans, 223 +Calamus rotang, 64 Orbignya cohune, 224 +Cañarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 221— 228 +Canarium ovatum, 6 8 Pachira aquatica, 230 +Carya illinoensis, 71— 72 Paullinia cupana, 233 +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 237 +Caryocar villo sum, 11 Pinus quadrifolia, 239 +Caryodendron orinocense, 79 Pistacia vera, 242— 243 +Castanea crenata, 81 Pittosporum resinferum, 245— 246 +Castanea dentata, 84 Platonia esculenta, 248 +Castanea mollissima, 87 Prunus dulcis, 252 +Castanea pumila, 89 Quercus súber, 255 +Castanea sativa, 92 +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +Castanospermum australe, 95 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 +Ceiba pentandra, 99 Santalum acuminatum, 261 +Cocos nucifera, 105 Sapium sebiferum, 264— 265 +Cola acuminata, 109 +Schleichera oleosa, 268 +Cola nitida, 111 +Sclerocarya coffra, 21 ì +323 +Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Telfairia occidentalis, 211 Corylus americana, 116 +Telfairia pedata, 280 Corylus avellana, 119 +Terminalia catappa, 283 Coula edulis, 131 +Trapa natans, 286 Cycas revoluta, 135 +Treculia africana, 289 Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Virola schiferà, 291 +Cyperus rotundas, 142 +Virola surinamensis, 292 +Detarium senegalense, 145 +English petroleum nut, see Pittosporum resinferum Elaeis guineensis, 148 +English walnut, see Juglans regia Eleocharis dulcis, 154 +Enzymes, see specific types Fagus grandifolia, 158 +Epicatechin, 20, 108, 110, 282 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Epimoretenol, 263 Gnetum gnemon, 166 +Eriodendron anfractuosum, see Ceiba pentandra Helianthus annuus, 169 +Essang nut, see Ricinodendron heudelotii Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Estrogens, 215, see also specific types Inocarpus edulis, 175 +Ethyl cinamate, 211 Jatropha curcas, 178 +Euorpean beech, see Fagus sylvatica +Juglans cinerea, 186 +Euphorbiaceae, 8— 13, 78— 79, 177— 179, 256— Juglans nigra, 191 +259, 262— 265, see also specific species Juglans regia, 194 +European chestnut, see Castanea sat iva Lecythis pisonis, 202 +European filbert, see Corylus avellana Li cania rigida, 204 +Excoecaria schiferà, see Sapium sehiferum Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 +Moringa oleifera, 215 +Nelumbo nucífera, 219 +Orhignya cohune, 224 +Fabaceae, 16— 17, 21— 25, 93— 95, 175— 176, see Orhignya martiana, 225 +also specific species P achira aquatica, 229 +Fagaceae, 80— 92, 157— 162, 253— 255, see also Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 +specific species Pinus edulis, 236 +Fagine, 160 Pistacia vera, 240, 241 +Fagus americana, see Fagus grandifolia Platonia esculenta, 248 +Fagus atropurpuea, see Fagus grandifolia Prunus dulcis, 250 +Fagus ferruginea, see Fagus graruiifolia Santalum acuminatum, 260 +Fagus grandifolia, 157— 159 Schleichera oleosa, 267 +Fagus sylvatica, 160— 162 Sclerocarya coffra, 270 +Fats, see also specific types Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Acrocomia totai, 3 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Terminalia catappa, 282 +Apios americana, 23 Trapa natans, 285 +Areca catechu, 26, 27 Treculia africana, 287, 288 +Arenga pinnata, 31 Fatty acids, see also specific types +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Acrocomia totai, 4 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Caryocar villosum, 76 +Borassus fiabeIlifer, 47, 48 +Ceiba pentandra, 91 +Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 +Corylus avellana, 119 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 Cycas revoluta, 135 +Calamus rotang, 62 +Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Canarium indicum, 65 Elaeis oleifera, 152 +Canarium ovatum, 67 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 Lecythis pisonis, 202 +Castanea crenata, 80 Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 +Castanea dentata, 82 Moringa oleifera, 215 +Castanea sativa, 90 Pistacia vera, 240 +Ceiba pentandra, 91 Platonia esculenta, 248 +Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 Prunus dulcis, 250 +Cola acuminata, 107, 108 Quercus súber, 253 +Cola nitida, 110 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +324 Handbook of Nuts +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Trapa natans, 285 +Santalum acuminatum, 260 +Treculia africana, 287, 288 +Sapium se bife rum, 263 +Fibrin, 53 +Virola sebifera, 290 +Filbert +Virola surinamensis, 292 American, see Corylus americana +Fatty oils, 110, 194, 211, 215, see also specific types beaked, see Corylus cornuta +Ferulic acid, 160 Chinese, see Corylus chinensis +Fiber European, see Corylus avellana +Acrocomia total, 3, 4 giant, see Corylus maxima +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Himalayan, see Corylus ferox +Apios americana, 23 +Lambert’s, see Corylus maxima +Areca catechu, 21 +Siberian, see Corylus heterophylla +Arenga pinnata, 31 +Tibetan, see Corylus ferox +Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Turkish, see Corylus colurna +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Flavonoids, 142, see also specific types +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Fluted pumpkin, see Telfairia occidentalis +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Folic acid, 191, 211, 250, see also Vitamin B +Borassus flabellifer, 47 Folk medicine +Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 Acrocomia total, 3 +Calamus rotang, 62 +Adhatoda vasica, 5 +Canarium ovatum, 67 +Aleurites f ordii, 8 +Carya illinoensis, 69 +Aleurites moluccana, 12 +Castanea crenata, 80 Aleurites montana, 14 +Castanea dentata, 82 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 16 +Castanea sativa, 90 Anacardium occidentale, 19 +Ceiba pentandra, 97 Apios americana, 22 +Cocos nucífera, 1 0 1 , 1 0 2 Areca catechu, 26 +Cola acuminata, 107, 108 +Arenga pinnata, 30— 31 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Artocarpus altilis, 34 +Corylus avellana, 119 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Coula edulis, 131 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Barringtonia procera, 43 +Cyperus rotundus, 142 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Detarium senegalense, 145 Borassus flabellifer, 47 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 Bosimum alicastrum, 50 +Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Brosimum utile, 53 +Fagus grandifolia, 158 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Buchanania lanzan, 57— 58 +Gnetum gnemon, 166 +Calamus rotang, 62 +Helianthus annuus, 169 +Canarium indicum, 65 +Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Canarium ovatum, 67 +Inocarpus edulis, 175 Carya illinoensis, 69 +Jatropha curcas, 178 +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 +Juglans regia, 194 +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 +Caryocar villosum, 75 +Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 +Caryodendron orinocense, 78 +Moringa oleifera, 215 +Castanea crenata, 80 +Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Castanea dentata, 82 +Orbignya martiana, 226 Castanea mollissima, 85 +Pachira aquatica, 229 Castanea pumila, 8 8 +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Castanea sativa, 90 +Pinus edulis, 236 Castanospermum australe, 93 +Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Prunus dulcís, 250 Cocos nucífera, 101 +Schleicher a oleosa, 267 Cola acuminata, 107 +Sclerocarya cajfra, 270 Cola nitida, 110 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Cola verticillata, 113 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Telfairia pedata, 279 Corylus americana, 116 +Terminalia calappa, 282 Corylus avellana, 119 +325 +Cory lus chinensis, 123 Trapa natans, 284 +Corylus colurna, 124 Treculia africana, 287 +Corylus cornuta, 126 Virola sebifera, 290 +Corylus ferox, 128 Virola surinamensis, 292 +Corylus heterophyIla, 129 Formaldehyde, 135 +Formic acid, 164 +Corylus maxima, 130 +Friedelin, 253 +Coula edulis, 131 +Cycas circinalis, 133 Fructose, 142, 178,211 +Fungi +Cycas revoluta, 135 +Cycas rumphii, 137 Acrocomia total, 3 +Cyperus esculentus, 139— 140 Adhatoda vasica, 1 +Cyperus rotundas, 142 Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Detarium senegalense, 145 Aleurites montana, 15 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 Anacardium occidentale, 21 +Elaeis oleifera, 152 Areca catechu, 29 +Eleocharis dulcis, 154 Arenga pinnata, 33 +Artocarpus altilis, 36 +Fagus grandifolia, 157— 158 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38— 39 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Ginkgo biloba, 163— 164 Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 +Gnetum gnemon, 166 Borassus flabellifer, 49 +Helianthus annuus, 168— 169 Bosimum alicastrum, 52 +Hyphaene thebaica, 173— 174 Buchanania lanzan, 58 +I nocarpus edulis, 175 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 +Jatropha curcas, 177— 178 Calamus rotang, 64 +Jessenia bataua, 181 Canarium indicum, 66 +Juglans ailanthifolia, 184 Carya illinoensis, 12 +Castanea crenata, 81 +Juglans cinerea, 186 +Castanea dentata, 84 +Juglans hindsii, 189 +Juglans nigra, 190 Castanea sativa, 92 +Juglans regia, 194 Castanospermum australe, 95 +Lecythis minor, 198 Ceiba pentandra, 99 +Lecythis ollaria, 200 Cocos nucífera, 105— 106 +Lecythis pisonis, 202 Cola acuminata, 109 +Licania rigida, 204 Cola nitida, 112 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Cola verticillata, 113 +Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Corylus americana, 118 +Moringa oleifera, 215 Corylus avellana, 122 +Nelumbo nucífera, 218— 219 Corylus colurna, 125 +Nypa fruticans, 222 Corylus cornuta, 127 +Orbignya cohune, 224 Corylus maxima, 130 +Orbignya mart lana, 225 Cyperus esculentus, 141 +Pachira aquatica, 229 Cyperus rotundus, 143 +Paullinia cupana, 231— 232 Elaeis guineensis, 151 +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Eleocharis dulcis, 156 +Pinus edulis, 236 Fagus grandifolia, 159 +Pinus quadrifolia, 238 Fagus sylvatica, 162 +Pistacia vera, 240 Helianthus annuus, 172 +Pittosporum resinferum, 244 Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 +Platonia esculenta, 247 Juglans cinerea, 187— 188 +Prunus dulcis, 249— 250 Juglans hindsii, 189 +Quercus súber, 253 Juglans regia, 196— 197 +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 256— 257 Madhuca longifolia, 213 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Moringa oleifera, 217 +Santalum acuminatum, 260 Nelumbo nucífera, 221 +Sapium sebiferum, 263 Orbignya cohune, 224 +Schleichera oleosa, 266— 267 Paullinia cupana, 233 +Sclerocarya coffra, 270 Pinus quadrifolia, 239 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Pistacia vera, 243 +Telfairia occidentalis, 216 Quercus súber, 255 +Telfairia pedata, 278 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +Terminaba catappa, 281— 282 Sapium sebiferum, 265 +326 Handbook of Nuts +Schleichera oleosa, 268 Cordeauxia edulis, 115 +Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 Corylus americana, 116 +Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Corylus avellana, 120 +Telfairia pedata, 280 Corylus chinensis, 123 +Terminalia catappa, 283 Corylus colurna, 124 +Trapa natans, 286 Corylus cornuta, 126 +Furfural, 191 +Corylus ferox, 128 +Corylus heterophylla, 129 +Corylus maxima, 130 +Coula edulis, 132 +Gabon nut, see Coula edulis +Cycas circinalis, 134 +Gadoleic acid, 267 Cycas revoluta, 135 +Galactan, 119 Cycas rumphii, 138 +Galactodendron utile, see Brosimum utile Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Galactose, 20, 135, 160, 178, 215, 235, 250 Cyperus rotundas, 143 +Gallic acid, 1, 240, 263, 282 Detarium senegalense, 146 +Gallocatechin, 219 Elaeis guineensis, 149 +Gallotanic acid, 240, 267 Elaeis oleifera, 152 +Gbanja kola, see Cola nitida +Eleocharis dulcis, 155 +Geographical distribution +Fagus grandifolia, 158 +Acrocomia scleracarpa, 1 +Fagus sylvatica, 161 +Acrocomia totai, 3 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Adhatoda vasica, 6 +Gnetum gnemon, 167 +Aleurites fordii, 8 Helianthus annuus, 169 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Aleurites montana, 14 I nocarpus edulis, 176 +Amphicarpaea hracteata, 17 Jatropha curcas, 178 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Jessenia bataua, 181 +Apios americana, 24 Juglans ailanthifolia, 184 +Areca catechu, 27 Juglans cinerea, 187 +Arenga pianata, 31 Juglans hindsii, 189 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Juglans nigra, 191 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 +Juglans regia, 195 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Lecythis minor, 198— 199 +Barringtonia procera, 43 +Lecythis ollaria, 201 +Bertholletia excelsa, 45 +Lecythis pisonis, 203 +Borassus flabellifer, 48 +Licania rigida, 205 +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Macadamia integrifolia, 208 +Brosimum utile, 53 Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 2 +Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucifera, 220 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Nypa fruticans, 223 +Calamus rotang, 63 Orbignya cohune, 224 +Canarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 227 +Canarium ovatum, 67 Pachira aquatica, 230 +Carya illinoensis, 70 Paullinia cupana, 232 +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 +Pinus edulis, 237 +Caryocar villosum, 77 +Pinus quadrifolia, 238 +Caryodendron orinocense, 78 +Pistacia vera, 241 +Castanea crenata, 80 +Pittosporum resinferum, 245 +Castanea dentata, 82— 83 +Platonia esculenta, 248 +Castanea mollissima, 8 6 +Prunus dulcis, 250 +Castanea pumila, 88— 89 +Quercus súber, 254 +Castanea sativa, 91 +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +Castanospermum australe, 94 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Ceiba pentandra, 98 Santalum acuminatum, 261 +Cocos nucifera, 102 Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Cola acuminata, 109 Schleichera oleosa, 267 +Cola nitida, 110 Sclerocarya cajfra, 270 +Cola verticillata, 113 +Simmondsia chinensis, 274 +327 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Cyperus rotundas, 143 +Te If airia pedata, 279 +Detarium senegalense, 146 +Terminalia calappa, 283 Elaeis guineensis, 148— 149 +Trapa natans, 285 Elaeis oleifera, 152 +Treculia africana, 289 Eleocharis dulcis, 155 +Virola schiferà, 291 Fagus grandifolia, 158 +Germplasm Fagus sylvatica, 160— 161 +Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Acrocomia totai, 3 G ne turn gnemon, 167 +Adhatoda vasica, 6 +Helianthus annuus, 169 +Aleurites fordii, 8 +Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Inocarpus edulis, 176 +Aleurites montana, 14 +Jatropha curcas, 178 +Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Jessenia bataua, 181 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Juglans ailanthifolia, 184 +Apios americana, 24 Juglans cinerea, 186— 187 +Areca catechu, 27 Juglans hindsii, 189 +Arenga pinnata, 31 Juglans nigra, 191 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Juglans regia, 195 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Lecythis minor, 198 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Lecythis ollaria, 2 0 1 +Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis pisonis, 202— 203 +Bertholletia excelsa, 45 +Licania rigida, 205 +Borassus flabellifer, 48 +Macadamia integrifolia, 208 +Bosimum alicastrum, 5 1 +Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 2 +Brosimum utile, 53 Moringa oleifera, 216 +Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Nelumbo nucifera, 220 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nypa fruticans, 223 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Orbignya cohune, 224 +Calamus rotang, 63 Orbignya martiana, 227 +Canarium indicum, 6 6 Pachira aquatica, 230 +Canarium ovatum, 67 Paullinia cupana, 232 +Carya illinoensis, 70 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Pinus edulis, 236— 237 +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus quadrifolia, 238 +Caryocar villosum, 77 Pistacia vera, 241 +Caryodendron orinocense, 78 Pittosporum resinferum, 245 +Castanea crenata, 80 +Platonia esculenta, 248 +Castanea dentata, 82 +Prunus dulcis, 250 +Castanea mollissima, 8 6 Quercus súber, 254 +Castanea pumila, 8 8 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +Castanea sativa, 90— 91 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Castanospermum australe, 94 Santalum acuminatum, 261 +Ceiba pentandra, 98 Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Cocos nucifera, 102 Schleicher a oleosa, 267 +Cola acuminata, 109 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Cola nitida, 110 Simmondsia chinensis, 273— 274 +Cola verticillata, 113 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 +Cordeauxia edulis, 115 Telfairia pedata, 279 +Corylus americana, 116 Terminalia catappa, 282— 283 +Corylus avellana, 119— 120 Trapa natans, 285 +Corylus colurna, 124 Treculia africana, 289 +Corylus cornuta, 126 Virola sebifera, 291 +Corylus ferox, 128 +Giant filbert, see Corylus maxima +Gìnkgetin, 164 +Corylus heterophylla, 129 +Corylus maxima, 130 Ginkgic acid, 164 +Coula edulis, 132 Ginkgo, see Ginkgo biloba +Cycas circinalis, 134 Ginkgoaceae, 163— 165, see also specific species +Cycas revoluta, 135 Ginkgo biloba, 163— 165 +Cycas rumphii, 137 Ginkgol, 164 +Cyperus esculentus, 140 Ginkgolic acid, 164 +328 Handbook of Nuts +Ginnol, 164 Hanga, see Pittosporum resinferum +Globulins, 35, 114, 250, 282, 287, see also specific Harvesting +types Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 +Glucoluteolin, 219 Acrocomia totai, 3 +Glucose Adhatoda vasica, 1 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Aleurites fordii, 10 +Borassus flabellifer, 48 Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Aleurites montana, 15 +Cola nitida, 110 Amphicarpaea hracteata, 18 +Anacardium occidentale, 21 +Cycas revoluta, 135 +Apios americana, 25 +Cyperus rotundas, 142 +Jatropha curcas, 178 Areca catechu, 28 +Madhuca longifolia, 211 Arenga pinnata, 32 +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 Artocarpus alti lis, 36 +Glucosidases, 94, see also specific types Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 +Glucosides, 114, see also specific types Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 +Glucuronic acid, 215, 250 Barringtonia procera, 43 +Glutamic acid, 35, 263, 270, 273, 282 Bertholletia excelsa, 45 +Glutamine, 23, 114, 160 Borassus flabellifer, 48— 49 +Glutathione, 219 Bosimum alicastrum, 52 +Glutelins, 35, see also specific types Brosimum utile, 53— 54 +Gluten, 282 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 +Glyceim, 253 Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Glycerides, see also specific types Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60— 61 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Calamus rotang, 63 +Aleurites montana, 14 Canarium indicum, 6 6 +Canarium ovatum, 67— 68 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Carya illinoensis, 1 1 +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 +Caryocar villosum, 75, 76 +Caryocar villosum, 77 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Madhuca longifolia, 211 Caryodendron orinocense, 79 +Platonia esculenta, 247, 248 Castanea crenata, 81 +Schleichera oleosa, 267 Castanea dentata, 83— 84 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Castanea mollissima, 87 +Virola surinamensis, 292 Castanea pumila, 89 +Glycine, 35, 51, 114, 160, 263, 273, 282 Castanea sativa, 92 +Glycoproteins, 94, see also specific types Castanospermum australe, 94 +Glycosides, 110, 133, 142, see also specific types Ceiba pentandra, 98— 99 +Gnetaceae, 166— 167, see also specific species Cocos nucifera, 104— 105 +Gnetum gnemon, 166— 167 Cola acuminata, 109 +Gossypol, 97 Cola nitida, 111 +Groundnut, see Apios americana Cola verticillata, 113 +Gru-gru nut, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa; Acrocomia Cordeauxia edulis, 115 +totai Corylus americana, 117— 118 +Guaiacol, 158 Corylus avellana, 121 +Guanine, 232 Corylus chinensis, 123 +Guanosine, 119 Corylus colurna, 125 +Guaraña, see Paullinia cupana Corylus cornuta, 127 +Guaranine, 232 Corylus ferox, 128 +Guilandina moringa, see Moringa oleifera Corylus heterophylla, 129 +Gums, 20, 53, 108, 110, 160, 215, 258, 270, see also +Corylus maxima, 130 +Coula edulis, 132 +specific types +Cycas circinalis, 134 +Guru, see Cola acuminata +Gutta, 211 Cycas revoluta, 135— 136 +Guvacine, 26 Cycas rumphii, 138 +Guvacoline, 26 Cyperus esculentus, 141 +Cyperus rotundas, 143 +Detarium senegalense, 146 +H +Elaeis guineensis, 150 +Hadji, see Cycas rumphii Elaeis oleifera, 153 +329 +Eleocharis dulcís, 155 Histamine, 114 +Fagus grandifolia, 159 Histidine +Fagus sylvatica, 161 Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Ginkgo biloba, 165 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +Gnetum gnemon, 167 Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Helianthus annuus, 170 Moringa oleifera, 215 +Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Prunus dulcis, 250 +I nocarpus edulis, 176 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Jatropha curcas, 179 Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Jessenia bataua, 182 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 Terminalia catappa, 282 +Hog peanut, see Amphicarpaea brat teata +Juglans cinerea, 187 +Juglans hindsii, 189 Honey tree, see Schleichera oleosa +Juglans nigra, 192 Horseradish tree, see Moringa oleifera +Juglans regia, 196 Hydrocyanic acid, 267 +Lecythis minor, 199 Hydroxybenzoic acid, 160 +Lecythis ollaria, 201 Hydroxyglutamic acid, 160 +Lecythis pisonis, 203 Hydroxy-9-octadecenoic acid, 253 +Licania rigida, 205— 206 Hydroxyproline, 160 +Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Hyperin, 194 +Madhuca longifolia, 212— 213 Hyperoside, 219 +Moringa oleifera, 216 Hyphaene thebaica, 173— 174 +Nelumbo nucífera, 220 Hypoxanthine, 232 +Nypa fruticans, 223 +Orbignya cohune, 224 +I +Orbignya martiana, 227 +Pachira aquatica, 230 Idalin, 160 +Paullinia cupana, 233 Illupei tree, see Madhuca longifolia +Inche, see Caryodendron orinocense +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 +Pinus edulis, 237 Indian almond, see Terminalia catappa +Pinus quadrifolia, 238 Indian lotus, see Nelumbo nucífera +Pistacia vera, 242 Indian walnut, see Aleurites moluccana +Pittosporum resinferum, 245 Indoleacetic acid, 215 +Platonia esculenta, 248 Indole acetonitrile, 215 +Prunus dulcís, 251 Inocarpus edulis, 175— 176 +Quercus súber, 254— 255 I nocarpus fagifer us, see Inocarpus edulis +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Inositol, 69, 160, 191,211 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 Insects, see also specific types +Santalum acuminatum, 261 Acrocomia totai, 3 +Sapium sebiferum, 264 Adhatoda vasica, 1 +Schleichera oleosa, 268 Aleurites f ordii, 10, 11 +Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 +Simmondsia chinensis, 21A Anacardium occidentale, 21 +Telfairia occidentalis, 277 Apios americana, 25 +Telfairia pedata, 280 Areca catechu, 29 +Terminaba catappa, 283 Arenga pinnata, 33 +Trapa natans, 286 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 +Treculia africana, 289 Carya illinoensis, 12 +Castanea mollissima, 87 +Virola sebifera, 291 +Castanospermum australe, 95 +Virola surinamensis, 292 +Hasu, see Nelumbo nucífera Ceiba pentandra, 99 +Hazelnut, see Corylus americana, Corylus avellana, Cocos nucífera, 106 +Corylus colurna Cola nitida, 112 +Heartnut, see Juglans ailanthifolia Cordeauxia edulis, 115 +Helianthus annuus, 168— 172 Corylus americana, 118 +Heptane, 244, 245 Corylus avellana, 122 +Hexacosanol, 160 Corylus cornuta, 127 +Hexadecenoic acid; 152, 247 Cyperus esculentus, 141 +Hicoria pecan, see Carya illinoensis Cyperus rotundas, 143— 144 +Himalayan filbert, see Corylus ferox Detarium senegalense, 146 +Hind’s black walnut, see Juglans hindsii Elaeis guineensis, 151 +330 Handbook of Nuts +Elaeis oleifera, 153 Moringa oleifera, 215 +Fagus sylvatica, 162 Nelumbo nucífera, 219 +Ginkgo biloba, 165 Pachira aquatica, 229 +Helianthus annuus, 171— 172 Pistacia vera, 240, 241 +Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Prunas dulcis, 250 +Juglans nigra, 193 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Juglans regia, 197 Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 +Lecythis minor, 199 Terminaba catappa, 282 +Lecythis pisonis, 203 Trapa natans, 285 +Licania rigida, 206 Trecuba africana, 288 +Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Isoguvacine, 26 +Madhuca longifolia, 213 Isoleucine, 35, 51, 114, 215, 258, 273, 282 +Moringa oleifera, 217 Isolicanic acid, 204 +Orbignya cohune, 224 +Isoquercitrin, 160, 219, 263 +Orbignya martiana, 228 +Isorhamnetin 3,7-dirhamnoside, 273 +Pachira aquatica, 230 Isorhamnetin 3-rutinoside, 273 +Paullinia cupana, 233 Isovitexin, 178 +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 Italian chestnut, see Castanea sativa +Pistacia vera, 243 Ivory nut palm, see Phytelephas macrocarpa +Prunas dulcis, 252 +Sapium sebiferum, 265 +Schleicher a oleosa, 268 +Sclerocarya caffra, 271 Jackfruit, see Artocarpus heterophyllus +Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Jagua, see Jessenia bataua +Telfairia pedata, 280 Japanese chestnut, see Castanea crenata +Terminaba catappa, 283 Japanese walnut, see Juglans ailanthifoba +Trapa natans, 286 Jatropha curcas, 177— 179 +Virola sebifera, 291 Java-almond, see Canarium indicum +Iodine, 1,4, 241, 285 Jericho balsam, see Balanites aegyptiaca +Ipuranol, 164 Jessenia bataua, 180— 183 +Iron Jessenia poly car pa, see Jessenia bataua +Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Jesuit nut, see Trapa natans +Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Jikungo, see Telfairia pedata +Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Jojoba, see Simmondsia chinensis +Areca catechu, 27 Juglandaceae, 69— 71, 184— 197, see also specific +Artocarpus altilis, 35 species +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Juglandic acid, 186 +Bert hollé tia excelsa, 44 Juglandin, 186 +Borassus flabellifer, 47 Juglans ailanthifoba, 184— 185 +Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Juglans allardiana, see Juglans ailanthifoba +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 +Juglans cabfornica, see Juglans hindsii +Calamus rotang, 62 Juglans cinerea, 186— 188 +Canarium ovatum, 67 Juglans coarctata, see Juglans ailanthifoba +Carya illinoensis, 69 Juglans hindsii, 189 +Castanea crenata, 80 Juglans lavallei, see Juglans ailanthifoba +Castanea mollissima, 85 Juglans mirabunda, see Juglans ailanthifoba +Castanea sativa, 90 Juglans nigra, 190— 193 +Cocos nucifera, 101, 102 Juglans regia, 194— 197 +Cola acuminata, 107 Juglans sachalinensis, see Juglans ailanthifoba +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Juglans sieboldiana, see Juglans ailanthifoba +Corylus avellana, 119 Juglone, 186, 191 +Cyperus esculentus, 140 Juri, see Castanea crenata +Cyperus rotundas, 142 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Eleocharis dulcis, 154 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 Kaempferol, 160, 194, 219 +Helianthus annuus, 169 Kaempferol-3-arabinoside, 194 +Juglans cinerea, 186 Kakari taccy nut, see Caryodendron orinocense +Juglans nigra, 191 Kanari, see Canarium indicum +Juglans regia, 194 Kaong, see Arenga pinnata +Madhuca longifolia, 211 Kapok, see Ceiba pentandra +331 +Kenari, see Canarium indicum Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Kola, Gbanja, see Cola nitida Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Kola nut, see Cola acuminata Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 +Kotamba, see Terminalia catappa Canarium indicum, 65 +Kusum tree, see Schleichera oleosa +Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 +Caryocar villosum, 76 +Castanea sativa, 90 +Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Lactic acid, 160 Cocos nucifera, 102 +Lac tree, see Schleichera oleosa Corylus avellana, 119 +Lambert’s filbert, see Corylus maxima Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Lapachol, 211 Cyperus rotundus, 142 +Lapachones, 211, see also specific types Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Laurie acid Elaeis oleifera, 152 +Cary a illinoensis, 69 Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Cocos nucifera, 102 Helianthus annuus, 169 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 Jatropha curcas, 178 +Helianthus annuus, 169 Jug Ians regia, 194 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Lecythis pisonis, 202 +Schleichera oleosa, 267 Licania rigida, 204 +Virola sehifera, 290 Macadamia inte grif olia, 207 +Virola surinamensis, 292 Madhuca longifolia, 211 +Lectins, 17, see also specific types Pachira aquatica, 229 +Pistacia vera, 240, 241 +Lecythidaceae, 198— 203, see also specific species +Lecythis elliptica, see Lecythis minor Platonia esculenta, 247 +Lecythis minor, 198— 199 Prunus dulcis, 250 +Lecythis ollaria, 200— 201 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +Lecythis pisonis, 202— 203 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Leucine Santalum acuminatum, 260 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Terminalia catappa, 282 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Treculia africana, 288 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Virola sebifera, 290 +Prunus dulcis, 250 Virola surinamensis, 292 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Linolenic acid +Sapium sebiferum, 263 Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 +Terminalia catappa, 282 Canarium indicum, 65 +Leucocyanadine, 20 +Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 +Leucocyanidin, 160, 219, 282 Elaeis oleifera, 152 +Leucodelphinidin, 160, 219 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Licania rigida, 204— 206 Helianthus annuus, 169 +Licanic acid, 204 Juglans regia, 194 +Ligin, 253 Madhuca longifolia, 211 +Lignans, 290, see also specific types Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Lignin, 253 Lipids, 4, 287, see also specific types +Lignoceric acid, 20, 97, 169, 215, 267 Liriodenine, 219 +Lignoceryl alcohol, 119 Lotus, see Nelumbo nucifera +Lignocerylalcohol, 119 Lotus root, see Nelumbo nucifera +Lignone, 97 Lucine, 215 +Limonene, 142, 245 Lumbang oil, see Aleurites moluccana +Linoceric acid, 140 Lupeol, 60 +Linoleic acid Lutelins, 287, see also specific types +Acrocomia scleracarpa, 1 Luteolin, 219 +Acrocomia totai, 4 Luteolin-7-glucoside, 219 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Lycine, 263 +Aleurites montana, 14 Lysine +Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +332 Handbook of Nuts +Moringa oleifera, 215 +Fagus syhatica, 160 +Jessenia hataua, 181 Prunus dulcis, 250 +Moringa oleifera, 215 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Prunas dale is, 250 Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Sapium sehiferum, 263 Terminada catappa, 282 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Methylaminopropionic acid, 133 +Terminada catappa, 282 Methylcorypalline, 219 +Methylpentosane, 160 +Microorganisms, 3, 10— 11, 18 see also specific +M +types +Macadamia integrifolia, 207— 209 Mil pesos, see Jessenia bataua +Macadamia nut, see Macadamia integrifolia Minerals, see specific types +Macadamia tetraphylla, 207— 209 Mites, 25,29, 118, 162 +Macauba, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa Mogongo nut, see Ricinodendron rautanenii +Macrozaniin, 135 Monkey pod, see Lecythis ollaria +Madhuca indica, see Madhuca longifolia Monkey pot, see Lecythis ollaria +Madhuca longifolia, 2 10— 213 Monoglycerides, 60, see also specific types +Magnesium Moraceae, 34— 39, 50— 54, 287— 289, see also +Amphicarpaea hracteata, 17 specific species +Moretenol, 263 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Cocos nucífera, 102 Moretenone, 263 +Jug Ians regia, 194 Moreton bay chestnut, see Castanospermum australe +Madhuca longifolia, 211 Morin, 37 +Prunas dulcís, 250 Moringa, see Moringa oleifera +Santalum acuminatum, 260 Moringaceae, 214— 217, see also specific species +Trapa natans, 285 Moringa nux-ben, see Moringa oleifera +Treculia africana, 288 Moringa oleifera, 214— 217 +Mahua, see Madhuca longifolia Moringa pterygosperma, see Moringa oleifera +Maidenhair tree, see Ginkgo biloba Mucaja, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa +Malabar chestnut, see Pachira aquatica Mucilage cola, see Cola verticillata +Malabar nut, see Adhatoda vasica Mu-oil tree, see Aleurites montana +Malay lac-tree, see Schleichera oleosa Murunga-Kai, see Moringa oleifera +Muscilage, 51 +Malic acid, 160,211,270 +Malindjo, see Gnetum gnemon Mutacone, 142 +Maltose, 211 Muzinda, see Treculia africana +Mammee, wild, see Platonia esculenta Myrcene, 244 +Manganese, 17, 44, 194, 241, 285 Myricetin, 160, 204, 211 +Mani, see Caryocar amygdaliferum Myricetin-3-O-L-rhamnoside, 211 +Manindjo, see Gnetum gnemon Myricitrin, 119 +Manketti, see Ricinodendron rautanenii; Ricinoden­ Myricitroside, 119 +dron heudelotii Myristicaceae, 290— 292, see also specific species +Mannan, 119, 234, 235 Myristic acid +Manninotriose, 119, 124 Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Mannitol, 174 Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Mannose, 48, 174, 235 Carya illinoensis, 69 +Maranhau nut, see Pachira aquatica Caryocar villosum, 76 +Marmesin, 41 Cocos nucífera, 102 +Manila nut, see Sclerocarya caffra Corylus avellana, 119 +Marvola nut, see Sclerocarya caffra Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Masico, see Bosimum alicastrum Cyperus rotundas, 142 +Mawra butter tree, see Madhuca longifolia Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Mbocaya, see Acrocomia total Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Melibiose, 119, 124 +Jatropha curcas, 178 +Methanol, 263 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 +Methionine +Moringa oleifera, 215 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Pistacia vera, 241 +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Platonia esculenta, 247 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 Prunus dulcis, 250 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 Terminada catappa, 282 +333 +Virola sebifera, 290 Cocos nucífera, 102 +Virola surinamensis, 292 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 +Myrobalan, see Terminalia calappa Corylus avellana, 119 +Myrtaceae, 43— 46, see also specific species Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Cyperus rotundus, 142 +Detarium senegalense, 145 +N +Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Nambi, see Caryodendron orinocense Eleocharis dulcis, 154 +Naphthaquinone, 211 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Narcissin, 273 Helianthus annuus, 169 +Native peach, see Santalum acuminatum Juglans nigra, 191 +Nelumbium nelumbo, see Nelumbo nucífera Juglans regia, 194 +Nelumbium speciosum, see Nelumbo nucífera Macadamia integrifolia, 207 +Nelumbonaceae, 218— 221, see also specific species Madhuca longifolia, 211 +Nelumbo nelumbo, see Nelumbo nucífera Moringa oleifera, 215 +Nelumbo nucífera, 218— 221 Nelumbo nucífera, 219 +Nematodes Pachira aquatica, 229 +Aleurites fordii, 11 Pistacia vera, 240 +Prunus dulcis, 250 +Apios americana, 25 +Areca catechu, 29 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Artocarpus altilis, 36 Terminalia catappa, 282 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 39 Trapa natans, 285 +Bertholletia excelsa, 46 Nickel, 44 +Ceiba pentandra, 99 Nicotine, 191 +Cocos nucífera, 106 Nicotinic acid, 215, 241, 285 +Cola nitida, 112 Ñipa palm, see Nypa fruticans +Corylus avellana, 122 Nitrates, 23, see also specific types +Cyperus esculentus, 141 Nitrogen, 4, 17, 23, 97, 164, 276 +Cyperus rotundas, 143 n-Nonacosan, 119, 160 +Elaeis guineensis, 151 Nonane, 245 +Eleocharis dulcis, 156 Nomuciferine, 219 +Nua nut, see Barringtonia procera +Helianthus annuus, 172 +Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 Nuciferine, 219 +Nut pine, see Pinus edulis +Juglans cinerea, 188 +Juglans nigra, 193 Nutrients, see spiecific types +Juglans regia, 197 Nutsedge, see Cyperus esculentus; Cyperus rotundus +Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Nymphaea nelumbo, see Nelumbo nucífera +Pistacia vera, 243 Nypa fruticans, 222— 223 +Quercus súber, 255 +Sapium sebiferum, 265 +o +Telfairia pedata, 280 +Terminalia calappa, 283 Oak, see Quercus súber; Schleichera oleosa +Neochlorogenic acid, 219 Ocimene, 244 +Neocycasin A, 135 Octadecatrienic acid, 204 +Neocycasin B, 135 Octadeconoic acid, 253 +Nerolidol, 261 Oil nut, see Juglans cinerea +Neurine, 160 Oil palm, see Elaeis guineensis; Elaeis oleifera +Niacin Oils, see also specific types +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Aleurites fordii, 8 +Areca catechu, 27 Aleurites montana, 14 +Arenga pinnata, 31 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 2n Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Borassus flabellifer, 47 Canarium indicum, 65 +Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Caryocar nuciferum, 74 +Calamus rotang, 62 Caryocar villosum, 75 +Canarium ovatum, 67 Caryodendron orinocense, 78 +Carya illinoensis, 69 Castanea dentata, 82 +Castanea crenata, 80 Ceiba pentandra, 91 +Castanea mollissima, 85 Cola acuminata, 107 +Castanea sativa, 90 Cola nitida, 110 +334 Handbook of Nuts +Cory lus avellana, 119 Juglans regia, 194 +Coula edulis, 131 Lecythis pisonis, 202 +Cycas revoluta, 135 Licania rigida, 204 +Cyperus eseulentus, 140 Macadamia integrifolia, 207 +Cyperus rotundus, 142 Madhuca longifolia, 211 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 Maringa oleifera, 215 +Elaeis oleifera, 152 Pachira aquatica, 229 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 Pistacia vera, 240, 241 +Helianthus annuus, 169 Platonia esculenta, 247 +Jatropha curcas, 178 +Prunus dulcis, 250 +Jessenia bataua, 181 +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +Juglans cinerea, 186 Santalum acuminatum, 260, 261 +Juglans regia, 194 Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Lecythis pisonis, 202 Schleichera oleosa, 267 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Madhuca longifolia, 211 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 +Moringa oleifera, 215 Terminalia catappa, 282 +Orbignya martiana, 225, 226 Treculia africana, 288 +Pistacia vera, 240 Virola sebifera, 290 +Pittosporum resinferum, 244 Virola surinamensis, 292 +Prunus dulcis, 250 +Oleodipalmitins, 76, 148, 211, 247, see also specific +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +types +Santalum acuminatum, 260, 261 +Oleodisaturated glycerides, 76, see also specific +Sapium se bife rum, 263 +types +Schleichera oleosa, 267 Oleopalmitostearins, 211, 247, see also specific types +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Oleo-resin, 240 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Olla de mona, see Lecythis ollaria +Treculia africana, 287 Orbignya cohune, 224 +Olivine, see Telfairia pedata Orbignya martiana, 225— 228 +Oiticica, see Licania rigida Orbignya oleifera, see Orbignya martiana +Ojuk nut, see Ricinodendron heudelotii Orbignya speciosa, see Orbignya martiana +Okwa, see Treculia africana Otaheite chestnut, see I nocarpus edulis +Olacaceae, 131— 132, see also specific species Owe cola, see Cola verticillata +Oleic acid Oxalic acid, 160 +Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 +Oxlate, 288 +Acrocomia totai, 4 +Oxoushinsunine, 219 +Aleurites f ordii, 8 Oyster nut, see Telfairia occidentalis; Telfairia +Aleurites moluccana, 13 pedata +Aleurites montana, 14 +Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Bertholletia excelsa 44 Pachira aquatica, 229— 230 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 Pahoo hadji, see Cycas rumphii +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Pakis adji, see Cycas rumphii +Canarium indicum, 65 Pakoeine, 133 +Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 Pakoo adji, see Cycas rumphii +Caryocar villosum, 76 Pakuri, see Platonia escalenta +Castanea sativa, 90 Palm +Ceiba pentandra, 97 +betel-nut, see Areca catechu +Cocos nucifera, 102 +black sugar, see Arenga pinnata +Cory lus avellana, 119 +coco-, see Acrocomia totai +Coula edulis, 131 +cohune, see Orbignya cohune +Cycas revoluta, 135 +doum, see Hyphaene thebaica +Cyperus esculentus, 140 ivory nut, see Phytelephas macrocarpa +Cyperus rotundus, 142 nipa, see Nypa fruticans +Elaeis guineensis, 148 palmyra, see Borassus flabellifer +Elaeis oleifera, 152 sugar, see Arenga pinnata +Fagus sylvatica, 160 Palmae, 147— 151, see also specific species +Helianthus annuus, 169 Palmitic acid +Jatropha curcas, 178 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 +Jessenia bataua, 181 Anacardium occidentales, 20 +335 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Pecan, see Carya illinoensis +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Pectin, 142, 250 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 Pentosane, 160 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Pentosans, 97, 164, 282, see also specific types +Canarium indicum, 65 Pequi, see Caryocar villosum +Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 Persian walnut, see Juglans regia +Caryocar villosum, 76 Pests, see specific types +Castanea saliva, 90 Petroleum nut, see Pittosporum resinferum +Ceiba pentandra, 97 Phellogenic acid, 253 +Cocos nucifera, 102 Phellonic acid, 253 +Corylus avellana, 119 Phenylalanine +Coula edulis, 131 Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Cycas revoluta, 135 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +Cyperus esculentus, 140 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Elaeis oleifera, 152 Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 Moringa oleifera, 2 15 +Helianthus annuus, 169 Prunus dulcis, 250 +Jatropha cureas, 178 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Jug Ians regia, 194 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Lecythis pisonis, 202 Terminalia calappa, 282 +Licania rigida, 204 Philippine hanga, see Pittosporum resinferum +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Philippine nut, see Canarium ovatum +Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Phlobaphen, 253 +Moringa oleifera, 215 Phloionic acid, 253 +Pistacia vera, 241 Phloionolic acid, 253 +Platonia esculenta, 247, 248 Phloracetophenone 2,4-dimethylether, 263 +Prunus dulcis, 250 Phloroglucin, 69 +Santalum acuminatum, 261 Phosphoric acid, 97, 164, 212, 267 +Sapium sebiferum, 263 Phosphorus +Schleichera oleosa, 267 Acrocomia total, 3, 4 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Aleurites moluccana, 12, 13 +Telfairia pedata, 279 Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Terminalia calappa, 282 Areca catechu, 27 +Treculia africana, 288 Arenga pinnata, 31 +Virola sebifera, 290 Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Virola surinamensis, 292 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Palmitodioleins, 76, 148, 211, 247, see also specific Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +types Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Palmitoleic acid, 207, 267 Borassus flabellifer, 47 +Palm oil, 74, 76 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 +Palmyra palm, see Borassus flabellifer Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Palo de vaca, see Brosimum utile Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 +Pamitic acid, 8 Calamus rotang, 62 +Pana, see Artocarpus altilis Canarium ovatum, 67 +Pantothenic acid, 211 Carya illinoensis, 69 +Papayotin, 35 +Castanea crenata, 80 +Paraguay coco-palm, see Acrocomia total +Castanea mollissima, 85 +Para nut, see Bertholletia excelsa Castanea sativa, 90 +Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Parasites, 99, 172, 213, 217, 239, see also specific +types Cocos nucifera, 101, 102 +Parcouril, see Platonia esculenta Cola acuminata, 107 +Parkeol, 60 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Parry’s pine nut, see Pinus quadrifolia Corylus avellana, 119 +Pataba, see Jessenia bataua Coula edulis, 131 +Pataua, see Jessenia bataua Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Paullinia cupana, 231— 232 Cyperus rotundas, 142 +Paullinia sorbilis, see Paullinia cupana Detarium senegalense, 145 +Pavettia, see Adhatoda vasica Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Peach, native, see Santalum acuminatum Eleocharis dulcis, 154 +Peanut, see Amphicarpaea bracteata Ginkgo biloba, 164 +336 Handbook of Nuts +Helianthus annuus, 169 Castanea sativa, 90 +Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Cocos nucífera, 102 +Jug Ians nigra, 191 Corylus avellana, 119 +Jug Ians regia, 194 Eleocharis dulcis, 154 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 +Helianthus annuus, 169 +Moringa oleifera, 215 +Jug Ians nigra, 191 +Nelumbo nucífera, 219 +Juglans regia, 194 +Pachira aquatica, 229 Macadamia integrifolia, 207 +Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Nelumbo nucífera, 219 +Prunus dulcís, 250 Pistacia vera, 240, 241 +Sclerocarya cajfra, 270 Prunus dulcis, 250 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Santalum acuminatum, 260 +Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 Terminaba catappa, 282 +Terminaba catappa, 282 +Trapa natans, 285 +Trapa natans, 285 +Treculia africana, 288 +Treculia africana, 287 Proanthocyanadine leucocyanadine, 20 +Phosphorylase, 285 Procyanidin, 110 +Physic nut, see Jatropha curcas Prolamine, 114, 282 +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234— 235 Prolamins, 35, see also specific types +Phytic acid, 194, 250 Proline, 35, 51, 160, 273, 282 +Phytohemagglutinins, 114, see also specific types Pronuciferine, 219 +Phytosterin, 133 Proteaceae, 207— 209, see also specific species +Phytosterols, 8, 69, 119, see also specific types +Proteins, see also specific types +Piauhy, see Platonia esculenta +Acrocomia total, 3, 4 +Pigments, 37, see also specific types Aleurites moluccana, 12, 13 +Pili nut, see Canarium ovatum Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 +Pinaceae, 236— 239, see also specific species Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Pine, see Pinus edulis Apios americana, 23 +Pinene, 244 Areca catechu, 26, 27 +Pine nut, see Pinus edulis, Pinus quadrifolia Arenga pinnata, 31 +Pinon, see Pinus edulis; Pinus quadrifolia Artocarpus altibs, 35 +Pinus cembroides, see Pinus edulis Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Pinus edulis, 236— 237 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Pinus par rayana, see Pinus quadrifolia +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Pinus quadrifolia, 238— 239 Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48 +Pistachio, see Pistacia vera Bosimum abcastrum, 50, 51 +Pistaciaceae, 240— 243, see also specific species Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Pistacia oleosa, see Schleichera oleosa Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59, 60 +Pistacia vera, 240— 243 Calamus rotang, 62 +Pittosporaceae, 244— 246, see also specific species Canarium indicum, 65 +Pittosporum resinferum, 244— 246 +Canarium ovatum, 67 +Platonia esculenta, 247— 248 +Carya illinoensis, 69 +Platonia insignis, see Platonia esculenta Castanea crenata, 80 +Pleragina umbresissima, see Licania rigida Castanea dentata, 82 +Polymerides, 253, see also specific types Castanea mollissima, 85 +Polynesia chestnut, see ¡nocarpus edulis Castanea sativa, 90 +Polyphenols, 142, see also specific types Castanospermum australe, 94 +Potash, 97, 169, 212, 267 +Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Potassium +Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 +Acrocomia total, 3, 4 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 +Aleurites moluccana, 12 Cola nitida, 110 +Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Corylus americana, 116 +Areca catechu, 27 Corylus avellana, 119 +Arenga pinnata, 31 Coula edulis, 131 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Cycas revoluta, 135 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Cyperus rotundas, 142 +Canarium ovatum, 67 Detarium senegalense, 145 +Carya illinoensis, 69 Elaeis guineensis, 148 +337 +Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Resin +Fagas grandifolia, 158 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +G ne turn gnemon, 166 Brosimum utile, 53 +Helianthus annuus, 169 Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Cyperus rotundas, 142 +Inocarpus edulis, 175 Madhuca longifolia, 211, 212 +Jatropha curcas, 178 Paullinia cupana, 232 +Jessenia bataua, 181 Pistacia vera, 240 +Juglans cinerea, 186 +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +Juglans nigra, 191 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Juglans regia, 194 +Rhamnose, 20, 41, 160, 215 +Lecythis pisonis, 202 Rhizome, 219 +Licania rigida, 204 Rhizophoraceae, 55— 56, see also specific species +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Riboflavin, see also Vitamin B +Madhuca longifolia, 211 Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Moringa oleifera, 215 Areca catechu, 27 +Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Arenga pianata, 31 +Orbignya cohune, 224 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Orbignya martiana, 225, 226 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Pachira aquatica, 229 Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Borassus flabellifer, 47 +Pinus edulis, 236 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 +Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Calamus rotang, 62 +Prunas dulcís, 250 Cañarium ovatum, 67 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Carya illinoensis, 69 +Santalum acuminatum, 260 Castanea crenata, 80 +Sapium sebiferum, 263 Castanea mollissima, 85 +Schleichera oleosa, 267 +Castanea sativa, 90 +Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Cocos nucífera, 102 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Corylus avellana, 119 +Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Terminaba catappa, 282 Cyperus rotundus, 142 +Trapa natans, 285 Detarium senegalense, 145 +Treculia africana, 287, 288 Elaeis guineensis, 148 +Provision tree, see Pachira aquatica Eleocharis dulcís, 154 +Prunas dulcís, 249— 252 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Pterygospermin, 215 +Helianthus annuus, 169 +Pumpkin, fluted, see Telfairia occidentalis Juglans nigra, 191 +Purging nut, see Jatropha curcas Juglans regia, 194 +Purple nutsedge, see Cyperus rotundas Macadamia inte grifo lia, 207 +Pyroligenous acid, 97 Nelumbo nucífera, 219 +Pachira aquatica, 229 +Pistacia vera, 241 +Prunus dulcís, 250 +Quandong nut, see Santalum acuminatum +Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Quercetin, 35, 97, 160, 194, 219 Terminaba catappa, 282 +Trecuba africana, 288 +Quercetin-3-arabinoside, 194 +Quercitrin, 194 Ribose, 41 +Quercus occidentalis, see Quercus saber Ricinodendron africanum, see Ricinodendron +Quercus saber, 253— 255 +heudelotii +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 256— 257 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258— 259 +R +Robinin, 219 +Raffinose, 119, 124, 164, 178, 219 Roemerine, 219 +Ramon, see Bosimum alicastrum Rosaceae, 204— 206, 249— 252, see also specific +Rattan cane, see Calamus rotang species +Red ucuuba, see Virola sebifera Rotang cane, see Calamus rotang +338 Handbook of Nuts +Rubidium, 44 Sitosterol glucoside, 41 +Rutin, 219 Slippery cola, see Cola verticillata +Snakes, 49, 136 +Soapberry tree, see Balanites aegyptiaca +Sodium +Saba nut, see Pachira aquatica Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Saccharides, 142, see also specific types Areca catechu, 27 +Saccharose, 178, 258 Arenga pianata, 31 +Sacred lotus, see Nelumho nucífera Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Salicylic acid, 142 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Sanga nut, see Ricinodendron heudelotii Bertho llé tia excelsa, 44 +Santalaceae, 260— 261, see also specific species Canarium ovatum, 67 +Santalbic acid, 260 Carya illinoensis, 69 +Santalbinic acid, 260 Castanea crenata, 80 +Santalum acuminatum, 260— 261 +Cocos nucífera, 102 +Sapindaceae, 231— 232, 266— 268, see also specific Eleocharis dulcís, 154 +species Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Sapium sebiferum, 262— 265 Helianthus annuus, 169 +Sapogenins, 41, see also specific types Juglans nigra, 191 +Saponins, 8, 23, 160, 232, see also specific types Juglans regia, 194 +Sapotaceae, 59— 61, 210— 213, see also specific Pachira aquatica, 229 +species Prunus dulcís, 250 +Sapucaia, see Lecythis pisonis Santalum acuminatum, 260 +Saturated acids, 140, 169, see also specific types Trapa natans, 285 +Schleichera oleosa, 266— 268 Treculia africana, 288 +Schleichera trijuga, see Schleichera oleosa Sodium selenite, 45 +Scirpus plantagineus, see Eleocharis dulcís +Sohnja, see Moringa oleifera +Scirpus plantaginoides, see Eleocharis dulcís +Sotesu nut, see Cycas revoluta +Scirpus tuberosus, see Eleocharis dulcís Spanish chestnut, see Castanea sativa +Sclerocarya caffra, 269— 271 Squalene, 69 +Scorpions, 49 Stachyose, 124, 178, 219 +Seje, see Jessenia bataua Starches, see also specific types +Selenium, 44, 200, 202 Anacardium occidentales, 20 +Selenomethionine, 45 Apios americana, 23 +Seliene, 142 Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Sequoyitol, 133 Castanea dentata, 82 +Serine, 35, 51, 114, 160, 273, 282 Cola acuminata, 108 +Sesquiterpene, 211 Cola nitida, 110 +Sesquiterpene alcohol, 211 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Shea nut, see Butyrospermum paradoxum +Cycas circinalis, 133 +Shikimic acid, 164, 241 +Cycas revoluta, 135 +Shikimin, 164 +Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Siberian filbert, see Corylus heterophylla Cyperus rotundus, 142 +Siebold walnut, see Juglans ailanthifolia +Eleocharis dulcís, 154 +Silica, 212, 253 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Silk cotton tree, see Ceiba pentandra Inocarpus edulis, 175 +Silver pine, see Pinus edulis +Nypa fruticans, 222 +Simarubaceae, 40— 42, see also specific species Orbignya martiana, 225 +Simmondsia chinensis, 272— 275 Prunus dulcís, 250 +Sinapic acid, 160 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Sitosterol Trapa natans, 285 +Anacardium accidéntale, 20 Stearic acid +Anacardium occidentales, 20 Aleurites fordii, 8 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 +Corylus avellana, 119 Anacardium occidentales, 20 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 Bertholletia excelsa, 44 +Jatropha curcas, 178 Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Moringa oleífera, 215 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 +Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Canarium indicum, 65 +Virola sebifera, 290 Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 +339 +Caryocar villosum, 76 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 +Ceiba pentandra, 97 Madhuca longifolia, 211 +Cocos nucífera, 102 Nypa fruticans, 222 +Orbignya martiana, 225 +Corylus avellana, 119 +Coula edulis, 131 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 +Cyperus esculentus, 140 Pistacia vera, 240 +Cyperus rotundas, 142 Prunus dulcis, 250 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 Terminalia catappa, 282 +Helianthus annuus, 169 Sulfur, 194 +Jatropha curcas, 178 Sunflower, see Helianthus annuus +Sweet chestnut, see Castanea dentata; Castanea +Lecythis pisonis, 202 +sat iva +Licania rigida, 204 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 +Madhuca longifolia, 211 +Moringa oleifera, 215 +Tagua, see Phytelephas macrocarpa +Pachira aquatica, 229 +Pistacia vera, 241 Tahit chestnut, see I nocarpus edulis +Platonia esculenta, 247 Tallow tree, see Detarium senegalense; Sapium +Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 sebiferum +Santalum acuminatum, 260 Tangkil, see Gnetum gnemon +Sapium sebiferum, 263 Tannic acid, 82, 108, 119, 160, 267 +Schleichera oleosa, 267 Tannic glycosides, 110, see also specific types +Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Tannins, see also specific types +Telfairia pedata, 279 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 +Terminaba catappa, 282 Aleurites fordii, 8 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Treculia africana, 288 +Apios americana, 23 +Stearins, 253, see also specific types +Areca catechu, 26 +Stearodioleins, 211, 247, see also specific types +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 +Stearodipalmitin, 76 +Sterculia acuminata, see Cola acuminata Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55 +Sterculiaceae, 107— 113, see also specific species Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Sterculia verticilata, see Cola verticillata Carya illinoensis, 69 +Steroids, 41, 253, see also specific types Castanea dentata, 82 +Steroketone artosternone, 37 Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Sterols, 164, see also specific types Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Stigmasterol, 178 Licania rigida, 204 +Stillingia sebifera, see Sapium sebiferum Madhuca longifolia, 211 +Strontium, 44 Nypa fruticans, 222 +Suari nut, see Caryocar nuciferum Pachira aquatica, 229 +Paullinia cupana, 232 +Suberin, 253 +Pistacia vera, 240, 241 +Suberindiol, 253 +Prunus dulcis, 250 +Succinic acid, 211 +Quercus súber, 253 +Sucrose, 119, 164,211,222 +Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Sugar palm, see Arenga pinnata +Sugars, see also specific types Schleichera oleosa, 267 +Acrocomia totai, 3, 4 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Telfairia pedata, 279 +Trapa natans, 285 +Anacardium occidentales, 20 +Tar, 97 +Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48 +Tarxerol, 119 +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +Telfairia nuts, see Telfairia pedata +Brosimum utile, 53 +Telfairia occidentalis, 276— 277 +Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Telfairia pedata, 278— 280 +Cola acuminata, 108 +Terminalia catappa, 281— 283 +Cola nitida, 110 +Termites, 95, 132, 146 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Cycas circinalis, 133 Terpenes, 65, see also specific types +Cyperus rotundus, 142 Terpineol, 211 +Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Tetracosanol, 160 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 Theobromine, 108, 110, 232 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 Theophylline, 6, 232 +340 Handbook of Nuts +Thiamine, see also Vitamin B Bertholletia excelsa, 45 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 Borassus flabellifer, 48 +Anacardium occidentale, 20 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55 +Areca catechu, 27 Calamus rotang, 62 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 Carya illinoensis, 70 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Castanospermum australe, 94 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Ceiba pentandra, 97 +Borassus flabellifer, 47 Cola acuminata, 108 +Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Coula edulis, 131 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 +Cycas circinabs, 133 +Calamus rotang, 62 +Cyperus esculentus, 140 +Canarium ovatum, 67 Detarium senegalense, 146 +Carya illinoensis, 69 Fagus grandifolia, 158 +Castanea crenata, 80 Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Castanea mollissima, 85 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Castanea sativa, 90 Gnetum gnemon, 166 +Cocos nucifera, 102 Jatropha curcas, 178 +Cola acuminata, 107, 108 Juglans cinerea, 186 +Corylus avellana, 119 Jug Ians nigra, 191 +Cyperus esculentus, 140 Lecythis minor, 198 +Cyperus rotundus, 142 Lecythis ollaria, 200 +Detarium senegalense, 145 Madhuca longifoba, 212 +Elaeis guineensis, 148 Orbignya cohune, 224 +Eleocharis dulcis, 154 Paulbnia cupana, 232 +Ginkgo biloba, 164 Quercus súber, 254 +Helianthus annuus, 169 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Inocarpus edulis, 175 Schleichera oleosa, 267 +Jug Ians nigra, 191 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 +Jug Ians regia, 194 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Trecuba africana, 288 +Nelumbo nucifera, 219 Trapaceae, 284— 286, see also specific species +Pachira aquatica, 229 Trapa natans, 284— 286 +Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Trecuba africana, 287— 289 +Prunus dulcis, 250 Triacosan, 119 +Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Triadica sebifera, see Sapium sebiferum +Terminaba catappa, 282 Tribydroxystigmasterol, 119 +Trapa natans, 285 Trimethy lamine, 160 +Treculia africana, 288 Triolein, 58 +Threonine Tripalmitin, 76, 148, 247 +Tristearin, 76 +Artocarpus altilis, 35 +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Triterpene, 263 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Tropical almond, see Terminaba catappa +Fagus sylvatica, 160 Tryptophane +Moringa oleifera, 215 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Ginkgo biloba, 164 +Terminaba catappa, 282 Jessenia bataua, 181 +Tibetan filbert, see Corylus ferox Juglans nigra, 191 +Tigemut, see Cyperus esculentus Moringa oleifera, 215 +Timbonine, 232 Prunus dulcis, 250 +Tin, 44 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Titanium, 45 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Tocophenol, 169, 250 Terminaba catappa, 282 +Tocopherol, see Vitamin E Tung-oil tree, see Aleurites f ordii +Toxicity Turkish filbert, see Corylus colurna +Adhatoda vasica, 6 Turkish hazelnut, see Corylus colurna +Aleurites ford H, 8 Tyrosine, 35, 51, 114, 160, 263, 273, 282 +Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Aleurites montana, 14 +u +Anacardium occidentale, 20 +Areca catechu, 27 Uabano, see Paulbnia cupana +341 +Ucahuba nut, see Virola surinamensis +Cycas rumphii, 137 +Ucuuba, see Virola schiferà; Virola surinamensis Cyp er US esculentus, 139 +Ukwa, see Treculia africana Cyperus rotundus, 142 +Unsaturated acids, 140, see also specific types Detarium senegalense, 145 +Ureides, 23, see also specific types Elaeis guineensis, 147— 148 +Uric acid, 23 Elaeis oleifera, 152 +Uronic anhydrides, 97 Eleocharis dulcís, 154 +Uses Fagus grandifolia, 157 +Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 163 +Adhatoda vasica, 5 Gnetum gnemon, 166 +Aleurites fordii, 8 Helianthus annuus, 168 +Aleurites moluccana, 12 Hyphaene thehaica, 173 +Aleurites montana, 14 I nocarpus edulis, 175 +Amphicarpaea hracteata, 16 Jatropha curcas, 177 +Anacardium occidentale, 19 Jessenia hataua, 180 +Apios americana, 22 Juglans ailanthifolia, 184 +Areca catechu, 26 Juglans cinerea, 186 +Arenga pinnata, 30 Juglans hindsii, 189 +Artocarpus altilis, 34 Juglans nigra, 190 +Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Juglans regia, 194 +Balanites aegyptiaca, 40— 41 Lecythis minor, 198 +Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 200 +Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Lecythis pisonis, 202 +Borassus flabellifer, 47 Licania rigida, 204 +Bosimum alicastrum, 50 Macadamia integrifolia, 207 +Brosimum utile, 53 Madhuca longifolia, 210 +Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55 Moringa oleifera, 2 1A— 215 +Buchanania lanzan, 57 Nelumbo nucífera, 218 +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 Nypa fruticans, 222 +Calamus rotang, 62 Orbignya cohune, 224 +Cañarium indicum, 65 Orbignya martiana, 225 +Canarium ovatum, 67 Pachira aquatica, 229 +Carya illinoensis, 69 Paullinia cupana, 231 +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 236 +Caryocar villosum, 75 Pinus quadrifolia, 238 +Caryodendron orinocense, 78 Pistacia vera, 240 +Castanea crenata, 80 Pittosporum resinferum, 244 +Castanea dentata, 82 Platonia esculenta, 241 +Castanea mollissima, 85 Prunus dulcís, 249 +Castanea pumila, 88 Quercus súber, 253 +Castanea sativa, 90 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 256 +Castanospermum australe, 93 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 +Ceiba pentandra, 96 Santalum acuminatum, 260 +Cocos nucífera, 100— 101 Sapium sebiferum, 262 +Cola acuminata, 107 Schleichera oleosa, 266 +Cola nitida, 110 Sclerocarya coffra, 269 +Cola verticillata, 113 Simmondsia chinensis, 272— 273 +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 +Corylus americana, 116 Telfairia pedata, 278 +Corylus avellana, 119 Terminano catappa, 281 +Corylus chinensis, 123 Trapa notons, 284 +Corylus colurna, 124 Treculia africana, 287 +Corylus cornuta, 126 Virola sebifera, 290 +Corylus ferox, 128 Virola surinamensis, 292 +Corylus heterophylla, 129 +Corylus maxima, 130 +Coula edulis, 131 +Valine +Cycas circinalis, 133 +Bosimum alicastrum, 51 +Cycas revoluta, 135 +342 Handbook of Nuts +Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Wood-oil tree, see Aleurites montana +Cordeauxia edulis, 114 +Fagus sylvatica, 160 +Moringa oleifera, 215 +Xanthine, 232 +Prunus dulcis, 250 +Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Xanthophyll, 276 +Xanthoxylin, 263 +Sapium sebiferum, 263 +Xylan, 119, 164 +Simmondsia chinensis, 273 +Terminalia catappa, 282 Xylose, 20, 41, 135, 160, 215, 250 +Vanillic acid, 160 Xylosidase, 94 +Vanillin, 253 +Vanilloside, 160 +Varnish tree, see Aleurites moluccana +Vasakin, 6 Yamogenin, 41 +Vasicine, 6 Yeheb nut, see Cordeauxia edulis +Yellow nutsedge, see Cyperus esculentus +Vasicinine, 6 +Vasicinol, 6 Yields +Vasicinone, 6 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 +Vasicoline, 6 Acrocomia totai, 3 +Vasicolinone, 6 Adhatoda vasica, 1 +Vegetable tallow, see Sapium sebiferum Aleurites f ordii, 10 +Virola nut, see Virola sebifera Aleurites moluccana, 13 +Virola sebifera, 290— 291 Aleurites montana, 15 +Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 +Virola surinamensis, 292 +Anacardium occidentale, 21 +Viruses, 25, 99, 106, 141, 143, 172, 185, 252 +Vitamin A, 26, 148, 215, 241, 285 Apios americana, 25 +Vitamin B, 215, 263, see also Folic acid; Riboflavin; Areca catechu, 28— 29 +Thiamine Arenga pinnata, 32 +Vitamin C, see Ascorbic acid Artocarpus altilis, 36 +Vitamin E, 148, 169, 215 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 +Vitamins, see specific types Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 +Vitexin, 178 Barringtonia procera, 43 +Bertholletia excelsa, 45 +Borassus flabellifer, 49 +w +Bosimum alicastrum, 52 +Walnut, see Aleurites moluccana Brosimum utile, 54 +African, see Coula edulis Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 +California, see Juglans hindsii Buchanania lanzan, 58 +Carpathian, see Juglans regia Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 +eastern black, see Juglans nigra Calamus rotang, 63— 64 +English, see Juglans regia Cañarium indicum, 66 +Canarium ovatum, 68 +Hind’s black, see Juglans hindsii +Carya illinoensis, 71 +Japanese, see Juglans ailanthifolia +Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 +Persian, see Juglans regia +Caryocar nuciferum, 74 +Siebold, see Juglans ailanthifolia +Caryocar villosum, 11 +white, see Juglans cinerea +Wanepala, see Adhatoda vasica +Caryodendron orinocense, 79 +Water caltrops, see Trapa natans Castanea crenata, 81 +Castanea dentata, 84 +Water chestnut, see Eleocharis dulcis; Trapa natans +Watemut, see Eleocharis dulcis Castanea mollissima, 87 +Wax berry, white, see Sapium sebiferum Castanea pumila, 89 +Waxes, 51, 53, 97, 135, 160, 253, 273, see also Castanea sativa, 92 +specific types Castanospermum australe, 94— ^95 +Weevils, 87, 115, 118, 127, 151 Ceiba pentandra, 99 +White ucuuba, see Virola surinamensis Cocos nucifera, 105 +White walnut, see Juglans cinerea Cola acuminata, 109 +White wax berry, see Sapium sebiferum Cola nitida, 111 +Wild mammee, see Platonia esculenta Cola verticillata, 113 +Wild peanut, see Amphicarpaea bracteata Cordeauxia edulis, 115 +Woman’s coconut, see Borassus flabellifer Corylus americana, 118 +343 +Cory lus avellana, 121 Madhuca longifolia, 213 +Corylus chinensis, 123 Moringa oleifera, 216 +Corylus caluma, 125 Nelumbo nucífera, 221 +Nypa fruticans, 223 +Corylus cornuta, 127 +Corylus ferox, 128 Orbignya cohune, 224 +Corylus heterophylla, 129 Orbignya martiana, 227 +Corylus maxima, 130 Pachira aquatica, 230 +Coula edulis, 132 Paullinia cupana, 233 +Cycas circinalis, 134 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 +Cycas revoluta, 136 Pinus edulis, 237 +Cycas rumphii, 138 Pinus quadrifolia, 238 +Cyperus esculentus, 141 Pistacia vera, 242 +Pittosporum resinferum, 245 +Cyperus rotundus, 143 +Platonia esculenta, 248 +Detarium senegalense, 146 +Elaeis guineensis, 150 Prunus dulcis, 251 +Elaeis oleifera, 153 Quercus súber, 255 +Eleocharis dulcis, 155 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 +Fagus grandifolia, 159 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 +Fagus sylvatica, 161 Santalum acuminatum, 261 +Ginkgo biloba, 165 Sapium sebiferum, 264 +Gnetum gnemon, 167 Schleichera oleosa, 268 +Helianthus annuus, 170— 171 Sclerocarya caffra, 271 +Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Simmondsia chinensis, 274— 275 +Telfairia occidentalis, 277 +Inocarpus edulis, i l 6 +Jatropha tur cas, 179 Telfairia pedata, 280 +Jessenia bataua, 182 Terminaba catappa, 283 +Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 Trapa natans, 286 +Juglans cinerea, 187 Treculia africana, 289 +Juglans hindsii, 189 Virola sebifera, 291 +Juglans nigra, 192— 193 Virola surinamensis, 292 +Juglans regia, 196 Ytterbium, 45 +Lecythis minor, 199 +Lecythis ollaria, 201 +Lecythis pisonis, 203 +Licania rigida, 206 Zanzibar oilvine, see Telfairia pedata +Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Zinc, 17, 44, 194, 260, 288